Observation - a focused, organized and certainly fixed perception of the object under study. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e Observation - the main most common in pedagogical psychology (and in pedagogical practice as a whole) empirical method Studying man. Under observation It is understood as a focused, organized and certainly fixed perception of the object under study. The results of fixing the observation data are called a description of the behavior of the object.
Observation can be carried out directly or using technical means and data logging methods (photo, audio and video equipment, observation cards, etc.). However, with the help of observation, it is possible to detect only the phenomena, found in ordinary, "normal" conditions, and for the knowledge of the essential properties of the object, it is necessary to create special conditionsother than the "normal".

  • The main features of the observation method are (see Animation):
    • the immediate connection of the observer and the observed object;
    • preissance (emotional painting) observation;
    • the complexity (sometimes is the impossibility) of re-observation.

There are several types of observations (see Fig. 6).
Depending on the position of the observer stand out open and hidden Observation. The first means that the subject is known for their scientific controls, and the researcher's activities are perceived visually. Hidden surveillance involves the fact of the hidden tracing actions of the subject. The difference between the first and second consists in comparison of data on the progress of psychological and pedagogical processes and the behavior of participants in the educational interaction in the face of the feeling of supervision and freedom from the eye of the foreign.
Stand out further solid and selective Observation. The first processes are covered in a holistic form: from their beginning to end, before completion. The second is a dotted, selective fixation of certain phenomena studied, processes. For example, in the study of the complexity of teacher and student work in the lesson, there is a whole cycle of training from its start at the beginning of the lesson until the end of the lesson. And when studying neurogenic situations in relations, a student teacher researcher seems to be surrounding, watching from the outside of these events, to then describe the causes of their occurrence, behavior of both conflicting parties, i.e. Teacher and student.
The result of the study in which the observation method is used is largely depends on the researcher himself, from its "culture of observation". It is necessary to take into account specific requirements for the procedure for obtaining and interpretation of information in observation. Among them, the following are highlighted:
1. Observation is available only external facts having speech and motor manifestations. You can not watch intelligence, but how a person solves the task; Not sociability, but the nature of interaction with other people, etc.
2. It is necessary that the observed phenomenon, behavior is determined operational, in terms of real behavior, i.e. The recorded characteristics must be as descriptive as possible and as long as possible.
3. To observe the most important moments of behavior (critical cases) must be allocated.
4. The observer should be able to record the behavior of the estimated person a long period of time, in many roles and critical situations.
5. The reliability of observation increases in the event of a coincidence of the testimony of several observers.
6. Role relations between the observer and the observed must be eliminated. For example, the behavior of the student will be different in the presence of parents, teachers and peers. Therefore, external estimates given to the same person on the same set of qualities of people who occupy a different position in relation to it can be different.
7. Evaluation in observation should not be subject to subjective influences (sympathy and antipathy, transfer relationships from parents to the student, with the performance of the student on his behavior, etc.).
Conversation - widespread in pedagogical psychology Empirical method - based on experience. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e empirical method obtaining information (information) about the student in communicating with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. This is specific to pedagogical psychology method of studying student behavior. Dialogue between two people, during which one person identifies the psychological features of another, called conversation method . Psychologists of various schools and directions widely use it in their research. It is enough to call the Piaget and representatives of his school, humanistic psychologists, founders and followers of "deep" psychology, etc.
IN The conversation is a dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the psychological features of the other. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e conversations , dialogues, discussions are revealed by student relations, teachers, their feelings and intentions, assessments and positions. Researchers of all times in conversations received such information, which no other methods cannot be obtained.
Psychological and pedagogical conversation as a research method is distinguished by purposeful attempts by the researcher to penetrate into the inner world of subjects educational process, identify the causes of certain actions. Information on the moral, ideological, political and other views of the subjects, their attributes of interest to the researcher are also obtained by conversations. But conversations are very complex and not always a reliable method. Therefore, it is used most often as an additional - to obtain the necessary clarification and clarifications about the fact that it was not quite clear when observing or using other methods.

The conversation is included as an additional method into the structure of the psychological and pedagogical experiment at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the student, teacher, gives them instructions, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of a post-exceptional interview.
Interview Called a targeted survey. The interview is defined as "pseudobested": the interviewer must always remember that he is a researcher, not to miss the plan and talk in the right direction.
Questioning - the empirical socio-psychological method of obtaining information on the basis of answers to specially prepared issues that meet the main task of research issues of the questionnaire. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "JavaScript: void (0);"\u003e Questioning - the empirical socio-psychological method of obtaining information on the basis of answers to specially trained issues that meet the main task of research issues of the questionnaire. Questioning is the method of mass collection of material using specially designed questionnaires, called questionnaires. The survey is based on the assumption that a person frankly responds to the questions given to him. However, as recent studies of the effectiveness of this method show, these expectations are justified by approximately half. This circumstance sharply narrows the range of application of the application and undermines confidence in the objectivity of the results obtained (Poam V.A., 1995; abstract).
Pedagogues and psychologists questioning attracted the possibility of fast mass surveys of students, teachers, parents, low-cost techniques and the possibility of automated processing of the collected material.

  • Now in psychological and pedagogical studies, various types of questionnaires are widely applied:
    • open, requiring independent constructing of the response;
    • closed, in which students have to choose one of the ready-made answers;
    • registered, requiring specifying the names of the subject;
    • anonymous, suitable without it, etc.
  • When drawing up, the questionnaire takes into account:
    • content of questions;
    • form of questions - open or closed;
    • formulating issues (clarity, without supper answers, etc.);
    • the number and procedure for following issues. In psychological and pedagogical practice, the number of questions usually relates no more than from 30-40 minutes by the method of questionnaire; The procedure for issues is most often determined by random numbers.

The survey may be oral, written, individual, group, but in any case should meet two requirements - representativeness and uniformity of the sample. The material of the survey is subjected to quantitative and high-quality processing.
Test method. Due to the specifics of the subject of pedagogical psychology, one of the above-mentioned methods is used to a greater extent, others are in less. However, the testing method is becoming increasingly distributed in pedagogical psychology.
Test (English Test - Sample, Test, Check) - In Psychology - fixed Time Test, intended for the establishment of quantitative (and high-quality) individually psychological differences (Burlachuk, 2000. P. 325). The test is the main tool of psychodiagnostic surveys, with which the psychological diagnosis is carried out.

  • From other methods of survey, testing is different:
    • accuracy;
    • simplicity;
    • affordable;
    • the ability to automate.

(; see the article Borisova E.M. "Basics of psychodiagnostics").

Testing is not new, but the study method (Burlachuk, 2000, pp. 325; abstract) is not used in pedagogical psychology. Back in 80-90. XIX century Researchers began to learn individual differences of people. This led to the emergence of the so-called test experiment - research using tests (A. Dalton, A. Kettel, etc.). Application Test (English Test - Sample, Test, Check) - In psychology - a time-fixed test, intended for the establishment of quantitative (and high-quality) individually psychological differences. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e tests He served for the development of a psychometric method (psychometry) - a set of theoretical and mathematical models and procedural and methodological rules for organizing the collection and processing of empirical data, allowing to express mental properties and parameters of mental processes in a numeric or quasic (rank, categorical) form. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e psychometric method , the foundations of which were laid by B. Henri and A. Bina. Measuring school success, intellectual development, the degree of formation of many other qualities with the help of tests has become an integral part of the wide educational practice. Psychology, giving pedagogy tool for analysis, closely connected with it (separating the testing of pedagogical from testing psychological is sometimes impossible) (; see Psychological tests).
If we talk about purely pedagogical aspects of testing, we indicate, first of all, to use prolifecy tests. The tests of skills, such as reading, letter, simple arithmetic operations, as well as various tests for the diagnosis of the level of training are widely used, and identifying the degree of learning, skills for all learning subjects.
Typically, testing as a method of psychological and pedagogical research is merged with practical testing of current academic performance, detecting level of training, quality control of assimilation educational material.
The most complete and systematized description of the tests is presented in the work of A. Anastasi "Psychological Testing". Analyzing Testing in Education, the scientist notes that all types of existing tests are used in this process, however, among all types of standardized tests, the achievement tests are numerically superior to all the others. They were created to measure the objectivity of programs and learning processes. Usually they "give an ultimate assessment of the achievements of the individual upon completion of the training, they are maintained in them that the individual can do to date" (). (; see the Center for Psychological and Professional Testing "Humanitarian Technologies" MSU).

  • A.K. Erofeev, analyzing the basic test requirements, allocates the following basic knowledge groups that the test must have:
    • basic principles of regulatory oriented testing;
    • types of tests and scope of their use;
    • the basics of psychometrics (i.e., in which units are measured in the system of psychological qualities);
    • test quality criteria (methods for determining validity and reliability of the test);
    • ethical norms of psychological testing.

All of the above means that the use of testing in pedagogical psychology requires special training, high qualifications and responsibility.
Experiment - one of the main (along with observation) methods scientific knowledge In general, psychological research in particular. Differs from observation by active intervention in the situation from the researcher carrying out systematic manipulation of one or more A variable - any reality observed changes of which (according to specific parameters or methods of the technique) can be fixed and measured in any scale. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e variables (factors) and the registration of related changes in the behavior of the object being studied (see Fig. 7).
Properly supplied experiment allows you to check the hypothesis (reason, assumption) - the scientific assumption in the form of statements, the truth or the falsity of which is unknown, but can be checked by an experimental way (empirically). In psychology, the component of the thinking process, guiding the problem of solving the problem by means of an estimated addition (extrapolation) of the subjectively missing information, without which the result of the solution cannot be obtained. Hypotheses may refer to this result or to the conditions on which it depends. Important part of Solutions of the problem are hypotheses relative to the principle ("onmouseout \u003d" nd (); "href \u003d" javascript: void (0); "\u003e hypotheses in causal casual relations, not limited to the relationship of communication ( Correlation - ratio, compliance, relationship, interdependence of objects, phenomena or concepts; Statistical communication measure, equal to covariance of standardized variables. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e correlation) Between variables. There are traditional and factor plans for the experiment (; see a group of research of factors for the formation of individuality of PI RAO).
For traditional planning Only one independent variable changes - an experimental impact or experimental factor - controlled, i.e. Actively variable variable variable, in other words, a functionally controlled variable, presented on two or more levels (qualitative or quantitative). ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e independent variable , P. factor - some. The advantage of the latter is the ability to assess the interaction of factors - changes in the nature of the influence of one of the variables depending on the value of the other. For statistical processing of the results of the experiment in this case applies Dispersion analysis is a statistical method that allows you to analyze the influence of various factors (features) on the (dependent) variable. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e dispersion analysis (R. Fisher). If the studied area is relatively unknown and the hypothesis system is absent, they are talking about a pilot experiment, the results of which can help clarify the direction of further analysis. When there are two competing hypotheses and an experiment allows you to choose one of them, talking about the decisive experiment. The control experiment is carried out in order to verify any dependencies. The use of the experiment, however, is encountered on fundamental limitations associated with the inability in some cases carry out an arbitrary change in variables. Thus, in the differential psychology and psychology of the personality, empirical dependencies mostly have the status of correlations (ie, probabilistic and statistical dependencies) and, as a rule, do not always allow to draw conclusions about causal relations. One of the difficulties of applying the experiment in psychology is that the researcher often turns out to be included in the situation of communicating with the person surveyed (subjects) and may involuntarily affect its behavior (Fig. 8). A special category of methods of psychological research and impact form formatives, or training, experiments. They allow you to essentially form the features of such mental processes as perception, attention, memory, thinking.


The experiment procedure is one of the main (along with the observation) of scientific knowledge methods in general, psychological research in particular. It differs from surveillance with active intervention in the situation from the researcher who performs a systematic manipulation by one or more variables (factors) and the registration of related changes in the behavior of the object being studied. The experiment properly supplied allows you to test hypotheses about causal relationships, not limited to the establishment of communication (correlation) between variables. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e the experiment is to enter into a directional or selection of such conditions that ensure reliable selection of the studied factor, and in registering changes related to its impact.
Most often in psychological and pedagogical experiments deal with 2 groups: the experimental, which includes the studied factor, and the control, in which it is missing.
The experimental at its discretion may modify the conditions for conducting experience and observe the consequences of such a change. This, in particular, makes it possible to find the most rational techniques in educational work with students. For example, changing the conditions for completing one or another educational material, can be installed under what conditions memory It will be the fastest, durable and accurate. Conducting studies under the same conditions with different subjects, the experimenter may establish age and individual characteristics of mental processes in each of them.

  • Psychological and pedagogical experiments vary:
    • in the form of
    • number of variables;
    • goals;
    • character of the organization of research.

In the form of carrying out two main types of experiment - laboratory and natural.
Laboratory experiment It is carried out in specially organized artificial, conditions designed to ensure the purity of the results. For this, the side effects of all at the same time occurring processes are eliminated. The laboratory experiment allows with the help of registering devices to accurately measure the time of mental processes, such as the speed of the human reaction, the rate of formation of educational, labor skills. It is used in cases where it is necessary to obtain accurate and Reliability - the stability of the data at repeated measurements of the variable, i.e. Reproducibility of variable measurement results. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e reliable Indicators under strictly defined conditions. More limited use has a laboratory experiment - an experiment in specially created conditions, allowing to identify the so-called pure independent variable by controlling all other conditions with which its influence can be mixed. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e laboratory experiment In the study of personality manifestations, character. On the one hand, the object of the study is complex and multifaceted here, on the other, the famous artificiality of the laboratory presents great difficulties. Exploring the manifestations of personality in artificially created special conditions, in a private, limited situation, we do not always have reason to conclude that similar manifestations will be characteristic of the same person in natural life circumstances. The artificiality of the experimental situation is a significant disadvantage of this method. It can entail a violation of the natural course of the processes under study. For example, commemorative and interesting educational material, in natural conditions, the student reaches different results than when it is proposed in unusual conditions to remember the experimental material, which directly does not represent interest for the child. Therefore, the laboratory experiment must be carefully organized and, if possible, be combined with other, more natural techniques - technique The implementation of the method in order to clarify or verify the knowledge of the object being studied. The specific embodiment of the method is the method of organizing the interaction of the subject and the object of study on the basis of a specific material and a specific procedure. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e techniques. The data of the laboratory experiment represent mainly theoretical value; The findings made on their basis can be distributed to real life practices with well-known restrictions (Milgram Art., 2000; abstract).
Natural experiment . These shortcomings of the laboratory experiment are accomplished to some extent when organizing a natural experiment. For the first time this method was proposed in 1910 A.F. Lazur at the 1st All-Russian Congress on Experimental Pedagogy. Natural experiment is carried out under normal conditions within the framework of the usual activities, for example, training activities or games. Often created by the experimenter, the situation may remain outside the consciousness of the subjects; In this case, the factor is positive to the study is the full naturalness of their behavior. In other cases (for example, when changing the teaching technique, school equipment, a day mode, etc.), the experimental situation is created openly, in such a way that the subjects themselves are made by the participants of its creation. Such a study requires particularly careful planning and training. It makes sense to use when the data must be obtained in extremely short time and without interference for the main activity of the subjects. A significant disadvantage of a natural experiment is an intermediate between the observation and the laboratory experiment, the research method in which the researcher can actively influence the situation, but in forms that do not disturb its naturalness for the subject. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e natural experiment - the inevitable presence of uncontrolled interference, i.e. factors whose influence is not established and cannot be quantified.
A.F. The Lazur expressed the essence of a natural experiment as follows: "With naturally experimental studies, we do not use artificial techniques, we do not produce experiments in artificial laboratory conditions, do not insulate the child from the usual situation of his life, and experiment natural forms external environment. We are exploring the personality of life itself and therefore becoming an accessible examination all the influences of the person on the environment and the environment on the person. Here the experiment is lifted. We explore not individual mental processes, as is usually done (for example, the memory is examined by memorizing meaningless syllables, attention - by crossing the icons on the tables), and exploring and mental functions, and the person as a whole. At the same time, we do not use artistic material, but school subjects "(Lazur A.F., 1997; abstract).
By the number of variables studieddistinguish one-dimensional and multi-dimensional experiments.
One-dimensional experiment It assumes the allocation in the study by one dependent and one independent variable. It is most often implemented in the laboratory experiment - the experiment in specially created conditions, allowing to identify the so-called pure independent variable by controlling all other conditions with which its influence can be mixed. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e laboratory experiment .
Multidimensional experiment . In a natural experiment, the idea of \u200b\u200bstudying phenomena is not isolated, but in their relationship and interdependence. Therefore, the multidimensional experiment is most often implemented here. It requires simultaneous measurement of many associated features, the independence of which is unknown in advance. Analysis of the links between the set of studied signs, identifying the structure of these relations, its dynamics under the influence of training and education are the main purpose of the multidimensional experiment.
The results of the experimental study are often not identified pattern, sustainable dependence, and a number of more or less fully fixed empirical facts. Such, for example, obtained as a result of the description experiment gaming activity Children experimental data on the impact on any activity of such a factor as the presence of other people and the associated motive of the competition. These data carrying often descriptive nature do not disclose another psychological mechanism of phenomena and represent only a more definite material, narrowing the further search sphere. Therefore, the results of the experiment in pedagogy and psychology often should be considered as an intermediate material and the baseline basis for further research work (; see the laboratory of theoretical and ex-perimental problems of the psychology of PI RAO).

2.4. Forming an experiment as one of the main methods of psychological and pedagogical studies

2.4.1. The essence of the formative experiment

Forming experiment - As used in age and pedagogical psychology, the method of tracking changes in the child's psyche in the process of active exposure to the researcher on the subject.
The formative experiment is widely used in domestic psychology when studying specific ways to form a child's personality, providing a compound of psychological research with pedagogical search and designing the most effective forms of the educational process (see Hrest. 2.2) (see the laboratory of the psychological foundations of new educational technologies).

  • Synonyms of the forming experiment:
    • converting
    • creative,
    • rapid
    • teaching
    • method of active formation of the psyche.

Historical reference

(; Server dedicated to L.S. Vygotsky)

Experimental and genetic method of study of mental development Developed by L.S. Vygotsky and connected with his cultural and historical theory of higher development mental functions . For the first time, LS was applied. Vygotsky and A.N. Leontiev when studying the formation of higher mediated forms of attention and memory. The essence of the method is to develop artificial experimental conditions that contribute to the creation of the process of the appearance of higher forms of mental functions. At the heart of such an experimental study of the genesis of mental phenomena lay two main provisions: the first - specifically human mental processes are the processes mediated, using a diverse tools developed during the historical development of human culture - signs, symbols, language, measures, and the like. ; The second - every mental process arises and operates in two plans - social and psychological, or, as L.S. Vygotsky, first as the category is interpsychic, and then as an intraxicheskic. After the death of L.S. Vygotsky The experimental and genetic method of studying mental development was successfully applied by its employees and followers in numerous studies (in the formation of audio hearing A.N. Leontiev, in the study of arbitrary movements A.V. Zaporozhet, when studying the patterns of development of perception L.A. Wenger and Dr.). Significant contribution made by P.Ya. Halperin, who developed theory and methodology phased formation of mental actions, and then targeted formation of mental processes with predetermined properties (attention, simultaneous perception, etc.). L.S. Vygotsky warned against a simplified understanding of the facts obtained in such artificial conditions and direct transfer of conclusions to the real development process. In the 60s. In addition to research conducted in laboratory conditions, numerous studies have appeared in the form of an experimental organization of the process of learning entire classes for analyzing the impact of learning to mental development (P.Ya. Galperin, V.V. Davydov, D. B. Elkonin, etc.) .

For targets distinguish standing and forming Experiments.
purpose statement experiment - measurement of cash levels (eg, the level of development of abstract thinking, moral and volitional qualities of the personality, etc.). Thus, the primary material is obtained for the organization Forming experiment - used in age and pedagogical psychology Method for tracing changes in the child's psyche in the process of active exposure to the researcher on the subject. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e forming experiment.
Forming (converting, training) experiment It is aimed at not a simple statement of the level of formation of a particular activity, the development of certain sides of the psyche, and their active formation or education. In this case, a special experimental situation is created, which allows not only to identify the conditions necessary for organizing the required behavior, but also experimentally implement the purposeful development of new activities, complex mental functions and deeper to reveal their structure. The basis of the forming experiment is an experimental and genetic method of study of mental development (see Fig. 9).
Theoretical basis The resulting experiment is the concept of the leading role of learning and education in mental development.

2.4.2. Experimental learning as a kind of formative experiment

  • Experimental learning - one of modern methods Studies of psychological and didactic problems. There are two types of experimental learning:
    • an individual learning experiment has already firmly entered into science;
    • collective experimental learning, which has become widely used in psychology and pedagogy only in the 60s. Xx in.

An individual experiment allows not only to state the already established features of mental processes in humans, but also purposefully to form them, reaching a certain level and quality. Due to this, it is possible to experimentally study the genesis of perception, attention, memory, thinking and other mental processes through the educational process. The theory of mental abilities as a lot of folding functional systems Brain (A.N. Leontyev), the theory of phased formation of mental actions (P.Ya. Galperin) and a number of other theories created in domestic psychology relied on the data obtained mainly by training experiments.
Collective experimental training is carried out on the scale of whole groups kindergarten, school classes, student groups, etc. The organization of such studies is primarily related to the needs of pedagogy and psychology in an in-depth study of the impact of human mental development, in particular in studying the age-related opportunities for the development of a person's psyche under different conditions of its activities (L. Studies V. Zankova, G.S. Kostyka, A.A. Lublin, B.I. Khachapuridze, D. B. Elkonina, etc.). Previously, these problems were developed on a mass material in relation to the system of conditions, spontaneously developing and dominant in these specific historical circumstances. The information obtained on the peculiarities of the mental development of a person was often absolished, and the sources of development of this process were sometimes seen only in a more or less permanent psychological nature of the individual himself. Basic Task - 1) The purpose of the activities given under certain conditions and requiring to achieve the use of funds adequate to these conditions; 2) the goal specified under certain conditions. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e task Experimental learning consists of substantial change and variation of the content and forms learning activities A person in order to determine the impact of these changes to the rates and features of the mental (in particular, mental) development, the pace and features of the formation of its perception, attention, memory, thinking, will, etc. Thanks to this, you can explore internal connections that exist between training and development, describe the various types of these links, as well as find the conditions of educational activities that are most favorable mental development in a particular age. In the process of experimental training, it is possible to form, for example, such a level of intellectual activity of a child who cannot be observed in its usual teaching system.
Conducting experimental learning in groups (groups, classes or their complexes) provides regularity, systematic and continuity of the necessary training effects, and also gives a diverse mass material for further statistical processing. Actually, experimental training should meet some specific requirements arising from the need to abide by the basic life interests of the subjects. These studies should not harm the spiritual and moral health of the people participating in them. In experimental groups, classes and schools, the most favorable conditions for training activities are created and supported.

  • The experimental learning technique has the following main features:
    • its content and methods are carefully planned in advance;
    • features of the process and the results of training are recorded in detail and input;
    • with the help of special task systems, it is regularly defined as the level of learning material assimilation and the level of mental development of the subjects different stages experimental learning;
    • these data are compared with the surveyed control groups and classes (engaged in conditions that are accepted for ordinary).

In combination with an individual training experiment, collective experimental training is increasingly used in psychology and Didactika (from Greek. Didaktikos - teaching related to learning) is the theory of education and training, the Pedagogy industry. ");" onmouseout \u003d "nd ();" href \u003d "javascript: void (0);"\u003e didactics As a special method of studying the complex processes of human mental development.

Summary

  • In pedagogical psychology, all those methods that are in the total, age and many other sectors of psychology are used: observation, oral and written survey, the method of analyzing the product products, content analysis, experiment, etc., but only here they apply to the age of children And those psychological and pedagogical problems, in the context of which there is a need to appeal to them.
  • Methodology - system of principles and methods of organization, the construction of theoretical and practical activity, as well as the doctrine of this system. The concept of "methodology" has two main meanings: a) a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity (in science, politics, art, etc.); b) the doctrine of this system, the general theory of the method, theory in action.
    • In general scientific terms, the method (from Greek. Methodos - the path of research, theory, teaching) is "a way to achieve any goal, solving a specific task; a set of techniques or operations of practical and theoretical development (knowledge) of reality" (big encyclopedic Dictionary..., 1998. P. 724).
    • The technique meets the specific goals and objectives of the psychological and pedagogical study, contains a description of the object and procedures for learning, methods for fixing and processing the data obtained. Based on a specific method, a variety of techniques can be created.
    • In the modern methodology and logic of science, the following general scheme of the methodology levels is allocated: the level of philosophical methodology; The level of the methodology of general research principles; level of specific scientific methodology; Level of methods and techniques research.
  • One of the most recognized and known classifications of methods of psychological and pedagogical research is the classification proposed by B.G. Ananya. All methods he divided into four groups: organizational; empirical; According to the data processing method; Interpretation.
    • Observation is the main, most common in pedagogical psychology (and in pedagogical practice as a whole) empirical method of studying a person. The observation is understood as a focused, organized and certainly fixed perception of the object under study. The results of fixing the observation data are called a description of the behavior of the object.
    • The conversation is widely distributed in pedagogical psychology. The empirical method for obtaining information (information) about the student in communicating with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. This is specific to pedagogical psychology method of studying student behavior. The dialogue between two people, during which one person identifies the psychological features of the other, is called the conversation method.
    • Test (English Test - Sample, Testing, Check) - In psychology - "Fixed Time Test, intended for the establishment of quantitative (and qualitative) individually and psychological differences" (Burlachuk L.F., 2000. P. 325). The test is the main tool of psychodiagnostic surveys, with which the psychological diagnosis is carried out.
  • The experiment is one of the main (along with the observation) of scientific knowledge methods in general, psychological research in particular. It differs from surveillance with active intervention in the situation by the researcher, which carries out the systematic manipulation of one or more variables (factors) and the registration of related changes in the behavior of the object being studied.
    • Foreign experiment - used in age and pedagogical psychology, the method of tracking changes in the child's psyche in the process of active exposure to the researcher on the subject. Synonyms of the forming experiment: converting; creative; raising; training; Method of active formation of the psyche.
    • Experimental training is one of the modern methods of studying psychological and didactic problems. There are two types of experimental learning: an individual learning experiment, which has already been firmly entered into science; Collective experimental learning, which has become widely used in psychology and pedagogy only in the 60s. XX century

Dictionary Terminos

  1. Questioning
  2. Conversation
  3. Validity
  4. Hypothesis
  5. Natural experiment
  6. A task
  7. Induction
  8. Interview
  9. Causal hypothesis
  10. Correlation
  11. Laboratory experiment
  12. Method
  13. Methodik
  14. Methodology
  15. Observation
  16. Reliability
  17. Independent variable
  18. Variable
  19. Principle
  20. Problem
  21. Forming experiment
  22. Experiment

Questions for self-test

  1. What is the essence methodological foundations Psychological research and their implementation in pedagogical psychology?
  2. What is the relationship of the methodology, methods and methods of research in pedagogical psychology?
  3. Name the main stages of psychological and pedagogical research.
  4. Give the classification of methods of psychological and pedagogical research on different grounds.
  5. Give the characteristic of the main special methods of pedagogical psychology.
  6. What are the features of the application of the method of observation in psychological and pedagogical studies?
  7. Select the advantages and disadvantages of the application of the conversation method in psychological and pedagogical studies.
  8. What is the specificity of using the method of studying "products of activity" in pedagogical psychology?
  9. Give overall characteristic The method of experiment and formulate basic requirements for its use in pedagogical psychology.
  10. Name the main types of experiment in pedagogical psychology and give them a comparative characteristic.
  11. What is the essence of an emerging experiment in pedagogical psychology?

Bibliography

  1. Ananyev B.G. Man as a subject of knowledge. St. Petersburg., 2001.
  2. Anastasi A. Psychological Testing. M., 1982. KN.1, 2.
  3. Asmolov A.G. Cultural and historical psychology and constructing of worlds. M.; Voronezh, 1996.
  4. Bodaliev A.A., Stolin V.V. Overall psychodiagnostics. St. Petersburg., 2000.
  5. Big Encyclopedic Dictionary. 2nd ed. M., 1998.
  6. Burlachuk L.F., Morozov S.M. Psychodiagnostic Dictionary. St. Petersburg., 2000.
  7. Druzhinin V.N. Experimental psychology. St. Petersburg., 1997.
  8. Yerofeev A.K. EUM in psychodiagnostics in the highest school. M., 1987.
  9. Winter I.A. Pedagogical psychology: studies. benefit. Rostov N / D, 1997.
  10. Kornilova T.V. Experimental psychology: theory and methods. M., 2002.
  11. Lomoms B.F. Methodological I. theoretical problems Psychology. M., 1999.
  12. Milgram S. Experiment in social psychology. St. Petersburg., 2000.
  13. Workshop on age and pedagogical psychology: studies. Manual for students ped. In-Tov / Ed. A.I. Shcherbakova. M., 1987.
  14. Workshop on pedagogy and psychology of higher school / ed. A.K. Erofeev. M., 1991.
  15. Sidorenko E.V. Methods of mathematical processing in psychology. St. Petersburg., 2000.
  16. Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Basics of psychological anthropology. Psychology: Introduction to the psychology of subjectivity: studies. Handbook for universities. M., 1995.
  17. Solo R., Johnson H., Bil K. Experimental Psychology: Practical course. St. Petersburg., 2001.
  18. Shevandrin N.I. Psychodiagnostics, correction and identity development. M., 1998.
  19. Poys V.A. Sociological study: methodology, program, methods. Samara, 1995.
  20. Yaroshevsky MG History of psychology. M., 1985.

Threads of exchange work and abstracts

  1. The relationship of methodology, methods and methods of psychological and pedagogical research.
  2. Features of the use of general scientific methods in psychological and pedagogical studies.
  3. Comparative analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods.
  4. Forming an experiment as one of the main methods of pedagogical psychology.
  5. Application of the conversation method in the study of the student's personality.
  6. The problem of validity of psychological and pedagogical studies.
  7. Factors that violate the inner and external validity of psychological and pedagogical research.
  8. Features of the application of the method of analyzing "products of activity" in pedagogical psychology.
  9. The main stages of psychological and pedagogical research.
  10. Multifactor multi-level experimental psychological and pedagogical studies.

The main methods of pedagogical psychology

Classification of methods of psychological and pedagogical studies

One of the most recognized and known classifications of methods of psychological and pedagogical research is the classification proposed by B.G. Ananyev (Ananyev B.G., 2001; abstract) (see Fig. 4). (http://www.yspu.yar.ru:8101/vestnik/pedagoka_i_psichologiy/4_2/; see Article Mazilova V.A. "B.G. Ananyev and modern psychology (By the 90th anniversary of the birth of B.G.ananiev) ").

  • All methods he divided into four groups:
    • organizational;
    • empirical;
    • according to the data processing method;
    • interpretation.
  1. To organizational methods The scientist took:
  • comparative method as a comparison of various groups in age, activity, etc.;
  • longitudinal - as multiple surveys of the same persons over a long period of time;
  • complex - as a study of one object by representatives of different sciences.

  1. To empirical:
  • observation methods (observation and self-surveillance);
  • experiment (laboratory, field, natural, etc.);
  • psychodiagnostic method;
  • analysis of processes and products activities (pixiometric methods);
  • modeling;
  • biographical method.
  • By data processing method
    • methods of mathematical and statistical analysis of data and
    • methods of high-quality description (Sidorenko E.V., 2000; abstract).
  • To interpretational
    • genetic (philo and ontogenetic) method;
    • structural method (classification, typological system, etc.).

    Ananyev described in detail each of the methods, but at the thoroughness of its argument, as V.N. Druzhinin in his book "Experimental Psychology" (Druzhinin V.N., 1997; abstract), there are many unresolved problems: why is modeling proved to be an empirical method? How do practical methods differ from field experiment and instrumental observation? Why a group of incoming methods separately from organizational?

    • In use, by analogy with other sciences, to allocate three classes of methods in pedagogical psychology:
    1. Empirical under which the actual interaction of the subject and the object of the study is carried out.
    2. Theoretical when the subject interacts with the mental model of the object (more precisely - the subject of the study).
    3. Interpretation-descriptive in which the subject "externally" interacts with the iconic-symbolic representation of the object (graphs, tables, schemes).

    Result of application empirical methods are data that fix the state of the object with the testimony of instruments; reflecting the results of activity, etc. The result of the use of theoretical methods is represented by knowledge of the subject in the form of natural-language, iconic-symbolic or spatial-schematic.

    • Among the basic theoretical methods of psychological and pedagogical research V.V. Druzhinin allocated:
      • deductive (axiomatic and hypothetical and deductive), otherwise - climbing from the common to the private, from the abstract to a specific one. The result is theory, law, etc.;
      • inductive - generalization of the facts, climbing from private to general. The result is inductive hypothesis, pattern, classification, systematization;
      • modeling - specifying the method of analogy, "Transduction", conclusion from private to the private, when a simpler and / or accessible object is taken as an analogue of a more complex object. The result is the object model model, state.

    Finally, interpretation and descriptive methods - This is the "meeting place" of the results of the use of theoretical and experimental methods and the place of their interaction. Data empirical research, on the one hand, are subjected to primary processing and presentation in accordance with the requirements for the results on the part of organizing the study of theory, model, inductive hypotheses; On the other hand, there is an interpretation of this data in terms of competing concepts for compliance with the results of the results. The product of interpretation is the fact, empirical dependence and ultimately an exclusion hypothesis.

    Observation - the main, most common in pedagogical psychology (and in pedagogical practice as a whole) empirical method of studying a person. Under observation It is customary to understand the focused, organized and determinedly fixed perception of the object under study. The results of fixing the observation data are called a description of the behavior of the object. Observation can be carried out directly or using technical means and data logging methods (photo, audio and video equipment, observation cards, etc.). At the same time, with the help of observation, it is possible to detect only the phenomena occurring in ordinary, "normal" conditions, and for the knowledge of the essential properties of the object, the creation of special conditions other than the "normal" is extremely important.

    • The main features of the observation method are (see Animation):
      • the immediate connection of the observer and the observed object;
      • preissance (emotional painting) observation;
      • the complexity (sometimes is the impossibility) of re-observation.

    There are several types of observations (see Fig. 6). Considering the dependence of the supervisor's reproduction. open and hidden Observation. The first means that the subject is known for their scientific controls, and the researcher's activities are perceived visually. Hidden surveillance involves the fact of the hidden tracing actions of the subject. The difference between the first and second consists in comparison of data on the progress of psychological and pedagogical processes and the behavior of participants in the educational interaction in the face of the feeling of supervision and freedom from the eye of the foreign. Stand out further solid and selective Observation. The first processes are covered in a holistic form: from their beginning to end, before completion. The second is a dotted, selective fixation of certain phenomena studied, processes. For example, in the study of the complexity of teacher and student work in the lesson, there is a whole cycle of training from its start at the beginning of the lesson until the end of the lesson. And when studying neurogenic situations in relations, a student teacher researcher seems to survive, watching from these events to then describe the causes of their occurrence, behavior of both conflicting parties, ᴛ.ᴇ. Teacher and student. The result of the study in which the observation method is used is largely depends on the researcher himself, from its "culture of observation". It is necessary to take into account specific requirements for the procedure for obtaining and interpretation of information in observation. Among them are especially allocated as follows: 1. Observation is available only external facts having speech and motor manifestations. You can not watch intelligence, but how a person solves the task; Not sociability, but the nature of interaction with other people, etc. 2. It is necessary that the observed phenomenon, behavior is determined by the operational, in terms of real behavior, ᴛ.ᴇ. The recorded characteristics must be as descriptive as possible and as long as possible. 3. It is worth saying that the most important moments of behavior should be separated for observation (critical cases). 4. The observer should be able to record the behavior of the estimated person a long period of time, in many roles and critical situations. 5. The reliability of the observation increases in the case of coincidence of the testimony of several observers. 6. Role relations between observer and observed must be eliminated. For example, the behavior of the student will be different in the presence of a parent, teacher and peers. For this reason, the external assessments given to the same person on the same set of qualities of people who occupy a different position in relation to it may be different. 7. Evaluation in observation should not be subject to subjective influences (sympathy and antipathyams, transfer relations with a parent with a student, with the performance of the student on his behavior, etc.). Conversation - widespread in pedagogical psychology empirical method obtaining information (information) about the student in communicating with him, as a result of his responses to focused questions. This is specific to pedagogical psychology method of studying student behavior. Dialogue between two people, during which one person identifies the psychological features of the other, is customary conversation method . Psychologists of various schools and directions widely use it in their research. It is enough to call Piaget and representatives of his schools, humanistic psychologists, founders and a follower of "deep" psychology, etc. IN conversations, dialogues, discussions are revealed by the relationship of students, teachers, their feelings and intentions, assessments and positions. Sun explorers in conversations received such information that it is impossible to obtain any other ways. The psychological and pedagogical conversation as a research method is characterized by the indirect attempts of the researcher to penetrate into the inner world of subjects of the educational process, identify the causes of certain actions. Information on the moral, ideological, political and other views of the subjects, their attributes of interest to the researcher are also obtained by conversations. But conversations are very complicated and not allocating a reliable method. For this reason, it applies more often in this as an additional - to obtain the necessary explanations and clarifications about the fact that it was not quite clear when observing or using other methods.

    • For increase reliability The results of the conversation and the removal of the inevitable shade of subjectivism should be used by special measures. These include:
      • the presence of a clear, thoughtful, taking into account the characteristics of the student's personality and steadily conducted in the life of the conversation plan;
      • discussion of the research researchers in various perspectives and ties of school life;
      • variation of questions, setting them in a convenient form for the interlocutor;
      • the ability to use the situation, resourcefulness in matters and answers.

    The conversation is included as an additional method into the structure of the psychological and pedagogical experiment at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the student, teacher, gives them instructions, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of a post-exceptional interview. Interview Call a hovering polling. The interview is defined as "pseudobested": the interviewer of all the time must remember that he is a researcher, not to miss the plan and talk in the right direction. Questioning - The empirical socio-psychological method of obtaining information on the basis of answers to specially trained, meeting the main task of research issues of the questionnaire. Questioning is the method of mass collection of material using specially designed questionnaires, called questionnaires. The survey is based on the assumption that a person frankly responds to the questions given to him. At the same time, as recent studies of the effectiveness of this method shows, these expectations are justified by approximately half. This circumstance sharply narrows the range of application of the application and undermines confidence in the objectivity of the results obtained (Poam V.A., 1995; abstract). Pedagogues and psychologists survey attracted the possibility of fast mass surveys of students, teacher, and a parent, cheap methodology and the possibility of automated processing of the assembled material.

    • Now in psychological and pedagogical studies, various types of questionnaires are widely applied:
      • open, requiring independent constructing of the response;
      • closed, in which students have to choose one of the ready-made answers;
      • registered, requiring specifying the names of the subject;
      • anonymous, suitable without it, etc.
        Posted on Ref.rf
    • When drawing up, the questionnaire takes into account:
      • content of questions;
      • form of questions - open or closed;
      • formulating issues (clarity, without supper answers, etc.);
      • the number and procedure for following issues. In psychological and pedagogical practice, the number of questions usually relates no more than from 30-40 minutes by the method of questionnaire; The procedure for issues is more often determined by random numbers.

    Questioning should be oral, written, individual, group, but in any case should meet two requirements - representativeness and uniformity of the sample. The material of the survey is subjected to quantitative and high-quality processing. Test method. Due to the specifics of the subject of pedagogical psychology, one of the above-mentioned methods is used to a greater extent, others are in less. At the same time, the Testing method is obtained in pedagogical psychology. Test (English Test - Sample, Test, Check) - In Psychology - fixed Time Test, intended for the establishment of quantitative (and high-quality) individually psychological differences (Burlachuk, 2000. P. 325). The test is the main tool of psychodiagnostic surveys, with which the psychological diagnosis is carried out.

    • From other methods of survey, testing is different:
      • accuracy;
      • simplicity;
      • affordable;
      • the ability to automate.

    (http://www.vopsy.ru/journals_all/issues/1998/985/985126.htm; see Article Borisova E.M. "Basics of psychodiagnostics").

    Testing is not new, but the study method (Burlachuk, 2000, pp. 325; abstract) is not used in pedagogical psychology. Another 80-90 gᴦ. XIX century Researchers began to study individual differences in people. This led to the emergence of the so-called test experiment - research using tests (A. Dalton, A. Kettel, etc.). Application tests served as an impetus for development psychometric method, whose foundations were laid by B. Henri and A. Binœe. Measuring school success, intellectual development, the degree of formation of many other qualities with the help of tests has become an integral part of the wide educational practice. Psychology, providing pedagogy tool for analysis, joined it closely (separating the testing of pedagogical from testing psychological is sometimes impossible) (http://psychology.net.ru/articles/d20020106230736.html; see Psychological tests). If we talk about pure pedagogical aspects of testing, we indicate, before using the testing tests. The tests of skills, such as reading, letter, simple arithmetic operations, as well as various tests for the diagnosis of training levels, to identify the degree of learning to learn the degree of learning, skills to educational subjects are widely used. Typically, testing as a method of psychological and pedagogical research is merged with practical testing of current progress, identifying the level of training, the quality control of the learning material. The most complete and systematized description of the tests is presented in the work of A. Anastasi "Psychological Testing". Analyzing Testing in Education, the scientist notes that in this process the types of existing tests are used, however, among all types of standardized tests, the achievement tests are numerically superior to the rest. ʜᴎʜᴎ were created to measure the objectivity of programs and learning processes. Usually they "give an ultimate assessment of the achievements of the individual upon completion of the training, their main interest is concentrated on the fact that the individual can do to date" ( Anastasi A., 1982. P. 36-37). (http://www.psy.msu.ru/about/lab/ht.html; see the Center for Psychological and Professional Testing "Humanitarian Technologies" MSU).

    • A.K. Erofeev, analyzing the basic test requirements, allocates the following basic knowledge groups that the test must have:
      • basic principles of regulatory oriented testing;
      • types of tests and scope of their use;
      • basics of psychometrics (ᴛ.ᴇ. In which units are measured in the system of psychological qualities);
      • test quality criteria (methods for determination of validity and reliability of the test);
      • ethical norms of psychological testing (Erofeev A.K., 1987).

    All of the above means that the use of testing in pedagogical psychology requires special training, high qualifications and responsibility. Experiment - One of the basic (along with the observation) of scientific knowledge methods in general, psychological research in particular. Differs from observation by active intervention in the situation from the researcher carrying out systematic manipulation of one or more variables (factors) and the registration of related changes in the behavior of the object being studied (see Fig. 7). Properly supplied experiment allows you to check hypothesis in causal casual relationships, not limited to the relationship of communication ( correlation) Between variables. There are traditional and factor plans for the experiment (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/g-fak.html; see a group of research factors of the formation of individuality PI RAO). For traditional planning Only alone changes independent variable, P. factor - some. The advantage of the latter is the possibility of assessing the interaction of factors - changes in the nature of the influence of one of the variables based on the value of the other. It is important to note that for statistical processing of the results of the experiment in this case applies dispersion analysis (R. Fisher). In the event that the area under study is relatively unknown and the hypothesis system is absent, they are talking about a pilot experiment, the results of which can help clarify the direction of further analysis. When there are two competing hypotheses and an experiment allows you to choose one of them, talking about the decisive experiment. The control experiment is carried out in order to verify any dependencies. The use of experiment ͵ However, it is encountered on fundamental limitations associated with the inability in some cases carry out an arbitrary change in variables. Thus, in the differential psychology and psychology of the personality, empirical dependencies mostly have the status of correlations (ᴛ.ᴇ. Probabilistic and statistical dependencies) and, as a rule, do not allow to draw conclusions about causal relations. One of the difficulties of applying the experiment in psychology is essentially that the researcher is often included in the situation of communication with the person surveyed (subjects) and may involuntarily affect its behavior (Fig. 8). A special category of methods of psychological research and impact form formatives, or training, experiments. ʜᴎʜᴎ allows you to essentially form the features of such mental processes as perception, attention, memory, thinking.

    Procedure experiment It consists in the directional creation or selection of such conditions that ensure reliable separation of the studied factor and in the registration of changes related to its impact. More often in psychological and pedagogical experiments, they deal with 2 groups: the experimental, which includes the studied factor and the control, in which it is missing. The experimental at its discretion may modify the conditions for conducting experience and observe the consequences of such a change. This, in particular, makes it possible to find the most rational techniques in educational work with students. For example, changing the conditions for the memorization of one or another educational material, can be installed under what conditions memory It will be the fastest, durable and accurate. Conducting studies under the same conditions with different subjects, the experimenter may establish age and individual characteristics of mental processes in each of them.

    • Psychological and pedagogical experiments vary:
      • in the form of
      • number of variables;
      • goals;
      • character of the organization of research.

    In the form of conducting, two basic types of experiment are distinguished - laboratory and natural. Laboratory experiment It is carried out in specially organized artificial, conditions designed to ensure the purity of the results. For this, the side effects of the entire processes at the same time are eliminated. The laboratory experiment allows with the help of registering devices to accurately measure the time of mental processes, for example, the speed of the human reaction, the rate of formation of training, labor skills. It is used in cases where it is extremely important to obtain accurate and reliable Indicators under strictly defined conditions. More limited use has laboratory experiment In the study of personality manifestations, character. On the one hand, the object of the study is complex and multifaceted here, on the other, the famous artificiality of the laboratory presents great difficulties. Exploring the manifestations of the personality in artificially created special conditions, in a private, limited situation, we are far from all at all, we have reason to conclude that similar manifestations will be characteristic of the same person in natural life circumstances. The artificiality of the experimental situation is a significant disadvantage of this method. It can entail a violation of the natural course of the processes under study. For example, commemorative and interesting educational material, in vivo, the student reaches other results than when it is proposed in unusual conditions to remember the experimental material that directly does not represent interest for the child. For this reason, the laboratory experiment must be carefully organized and, if possible, be combined with other, more natural methods. The data of the laboratory experiment represent mainly theoretical value; The conclusions made on their basis are common to real life practices with well-known restrictions (Milgramma Art., 2000; abstract). Natural experiment . These shortcomings of the laboratory experiment are accomplished to some extent when organizing a natural experiment. For the first time this method was proposed in 1910. A.F. Lazur at the 1st All-Russian Congress on Experimental Pedagogy. The natural experiment is carried out under normal conditions within the framework of the usual activities, for example, training sessions or games. Often created by the experimenter, the situation may remain outside the consciousness of the subjects; In this case, a positive factor is the full naturalness of their behavior. In other cases (for example, when changing the teaching technique, school equipment, a day mode, etc.), the experimental situation is created openly, in such a way that the subjects themselves are made by the participants of its creation. Such a study requires particularly careful planning and training. It makes sense to use when the data needs to be obtained in extremely short time and without interference for the main activity of the subjects. Essential flaw natural experiment - the inevitable presence of uncontrolled interference, i.e. factors whose influence is not established and should not be quantitatively measured. A.F. The Lazur expressed the essence of a natural experiment as follows: "With naturally experimental study, we do not use artificial techniques, we do not produce experiments in artificial laboratory conditions, do not weaken the child from the usual situation of his life, and experiment with natural forms of the external environment. We investigate the personality itself And therefore, they become an accessible survey of all the influence of both the individual on the environment and environment per person. Here the experiment enters life. We are exploring not individual mental processes, as is usually done (for example, memory is examined by memorizing meaningless syllables, attention - by crossing the icons on the tables), and we investigate and mental functions, and the person as a whole. At the same time, we do not use artistic material, and school learning "(Lazur A.F., 1997; abstract). By the number of variables studieddistinguish one-dimensional and multi-dimensional experiments. One-dimensional experiment It assumes the separation in the study by one dependent and one independent variable. It is often implemented in laboratory experiment. Multidimensional experiment . In a natural experiment, the idea of \u200b\u200bstudying phenomena is not isolated, but in their relationship and interdependence. For this reason, here is often implemented by a multidimensional experiment. It requires simultaneous measurement of many associated features, the independence of which is unknown in advance. Analysis of the links between the set of studied signs, identifying the structure of these relations, its dynamics under the influence of training and education are the main purpose of the multidimensional experiment. The results of the experimental study are often represented by the identified pattern, sustainable dependence, and a number of more or less fully fixed empirical facts. Such, for example, obtained as a result of the experiment describing the game activity of children, experimental data on the impact on any activity of such a factor, as the presence of other people and the convening motive associated with this. These data carrying often descriptive nature do not disclose another psychological mechanism of phenomena and represent only a more definite material, narrowing the further search sphere. For this reason, the results of the experiment in pedagogy and psychology should often be considered as an intermediate material and a baseline basis for further research work (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-teor-exp.html; see the theoretical laboratory and Ex-perimental problems of psychology of development PI RAO).

    The main methods of pedagogical psychology are concepts and types. Classification and features of the category "Basic Methods of Pedagogical Psychology" 2017, 2018.

    In psychology, including pedagogical, so far there are two methodological approaches to the study of a person: natural science and humanitarian (psychotechnical).

    The natural science approach is aimed at building a true picture of what is happening, knowledge of objective, general laws Nature. The psychologist takes the position of a suspended researcher who does not affect what is happening with the object under study. The impact of its own attitude to what is happening, the values \u200b\u200bthat researcher recognizes is excluded. Various typologies, classification are the result of using mathematical methods of processing results.

    The humanitarian approach is concentrated on the most essential manifestations of human nature: values, meanings, freedom, responsibility. For this approach, not so much understanding becomes the most important psychological patterns And the facts, how much the attitude of a person to these facts, the meanings that he attaches them. In humanitarian knowledge, the emphasis shifts from identifying general patterns to the search for individual, special. In addition, the humanitarian approach recognizes the complexity, inconsistency and variability of human being.

    Pedagogical psychology as science needs accumulation of empirical data, their systematization and explanation. For this, within the framework of the natural science paradigm, two research strategies have been formed:

    observation strategyproviding data collection in the context of the task supplied by the researcher, the accumulation of empirical material in order to further exit the description of the patterns of the observed process or phenomenon;

    strategy of the natural science state-learning experiment,which allows you to detect a phenomenon or process under controlled conditions, measure its quantitative characteristics and give a qualitative description. The child, the teacher or parent serve here for a psychologist as an object of research subject. The study program is formed in advance, the influence of the psychologist on the studied process should be minimized;

    third strategy formationanother process with the specified properties implies the active interaction of a psychologist with another person. The emergence of this strategy is due to the fact that modern pedagogical psychology becomes science is not about the well-established personal consciousness of a person, but about the consciousness of the spiritually growing person who develops, the consciousness of a spiritually growing person who makes effort and work in its development.Procedures used to implement this strategy, flexible, depending on the characteristics of the interaction. The psychologist is interested in what is happening. For the implementation of the third strategy, the ability of the psychologist is especially important interpret, understand, reflect, problematize and join a dialogue with another person.

    Interpretation. The basis of each language is some conceptual configurations, which we have changed "interpretation schemes". Facts placed in personal interpretation schemes acquire different meanings. The possibility of entry into the semantic field of another leads to understanding by people of each other.

    Understandinginterpreted as the art of "grabbing" the meanings of communication, actions of people, facts and events arising in the context of a certain situation.

    According to the ideas of A.A.verbitsky, a person exists in various contexts (objective and subjective). The integration of the set of sense-forming contexts forms in the process of human interaction with the world its subjective picture. The latter mediates the perception by a man of peace and himself in it, affects the choice of actions, speaking a factor in more "objective" than the objective characteristics of the situation.

    Understanding is active-dialogic, and the meaning is generated in joint activities and communication of the psychologist with another person.

    Among the techniques that can be used to organize understanding:

    Minimizing complex to simple, exhaustion of basic ideas and feelings;

    Establishment of relations of assistance, cooperation, empathy psychologist between two subjects;

    Work on the rules of Majorti to expand the field of possible meanings, i.e., the formulation of issues of such a level of uncertainty, which would stimulate "natural" processes to expand the semantic field;

    Takes "growing meanings" as a repetition of the main thought, the interpretation of the said, the use of questions on clarification, deepening meaning, nomination of the hypotheses on the meaning of the said.

    The most important condition of understanding is the consideration of the sense as copyright, i.e. As suggested by speaking, and not visiting himself.

    Understanding associated with reflexia , which is one of the mechanisms of understanding itself and its being. The task of a psychologist is to help another to go into a reflexive position, that is, how to "suspend" the continuous process of life and bring out of it. The reflexive output leads misunderstanding in communication, the inability to deeply and fully characterize its situation.

    Dialogueit is understood as an attachment to other sense-life space, which is not exhausted by language interaction and does not lead to the search for truth, but clarifies spiritual measurements of existence.

    Problematizationit is understood as a thought technique, consisting in the requirement to explain, justify that, why and in connection with which the other approves. Due to the problematization, the productivity and quality of judgments sharply increases, the search skills, study and construction of the grounds for their statements and actions are formed.

    Methods implementing a third strategy, some authors call practical psychology methods. These include:

    psychological advice, psychological correction, psychotherapy, psychotraining, method of phased formation of mental actions, the method of climbing from the abstract to a specific one. Exploring the features of the formation of cognitive processes, scientists managed to develop approaches to their formation. Thus, at the same time two tasks were solved - research and formation. Methods that were traditionally used in pedagogical psychology for diagnostic purposes have a high correctional potential. So, children's drawing, on the one hand, can only be used as a diagnostic tool. On the other hand, this is a well-developed method of psychological correction.

    In the work of the school psychologist, the developing potential of the method is important, i.e. the possibility of obtaining a developing effect in the process of the most examination and construction of developing programs on it. Psychologist-practitioner is not interested in conducting only surveys. It is more important to use the method with maximum benefit for corrective and developing work.

    The principles of building and organizing psychodiagnostic activities of a psychologist at school include:

    compliance with the selected approach and a specific methodology for the purposes and objectives of the effective psychological support of the child;

    the results of the survey must be formulated on the language that are clear or easy to succumb to the transaction to those understood by the other language;

    prognosticity of the methods used, i.e. the ability to predict on their basis the feature of the child's development in further stages of training and education;

    high developing potential of the method;

    efficiency of the procedure. The good technique must be a short, multifunctional procedure that exists both individually and in group Variant, easy to process and, if possible, unambiguous in the assessment of the data obtained.

    The actions of the psychologist in organizing any impact on the child should be agreed with parents. The decision of the presence of parents on a psychological examination should be solved individually. In diagnostic examination of preschoolers and junior schoolchildren The presence of parents is preferably. This will help parents see the characteristics of the child, and the psychologist will be easier to build work on the discussion of the diagnostic results. In addition, the reactions of parents on what is happening is given to a psychologist an additional material about the features of family relationships.

    At an older age, if the child does not object, the survey can be carried out without parents. But in any case, it is necessary to obtain a written permission of parents for conducting a survey.

    Characteristics of methods

    The main methods of pedagogical psychology are the following.

    Observation - the focused, specially organized and fixed perception of the object under study. Observation allows you to identify the psychological features of a child, a teacher or parent in the natural conditions for them. Behind the child can be observed during a lesson or a game with peers, for the parent - during the holiday organized in the classroom, and the observer must rely on the objectively observed parameters of behavior, and not interpret them.

    Observation errorsobserver related:

    "The Effect of Arase" is associated with the tendency of the observer to generalize the behavior of the observed. So, the observation of the child during the lessons is transferred to his behavior at all;

    the mistake of "false agreement" is that the observer in assessing behavior follows the opinion of the surrounding, established about him ("everyone so say");

    the error of the "average trend" is associated with a tendency to focus on typical, "average" for each person behavioral manifestations, and not different from ordinary forms (the idea that boys are on average are more active and energetic than girls can affect the course of observation features of relations of children of different floors);

    the error of the "first impression" is the result of the transfer of the prevailing stereotypes of perception on the observed person.

    To avoid the specified errors, it is desirable to observe the behavior of a particular person for a long time, compare your data with the results of observations of other people.

    The observer should be good to present that, for which he is going to observe: the program must be created, the parameters of the observed behavior, the methods of fixation, are defined. Otherwise, he will fix random facts.

    A kind of observation is diaries that can lead parents and teachers, describing the features of the development of children, their relationship with others. The valuable material of the psychologist can get from diary records and self-reports that conduct participants in trainings and groups of personal growth.

    Introspectionis a type of observation and involves learning the psyche based on the observation of its own mental phenomena. For its holding, the test must be formed high level Abstract-logical thinking and ability to reflection. Children's preschoolers are easier to draw their condition than they will talk about it.

    Experiment - the method of collecting facts in controlled and managed conditions that ensure the active manifestation of studied mental phenomena.

    By the form of holdinghighlight natural and laboratory experiment.Natural experiment was proposed by A.F. Lazur in 1910 at the I All-Russian Congress on Experimental Pedagogy. The natural experiment is carried out in conditions of familiar activities (in class, in the game). The teacher can use this method widely in its work. In particular, changing the forms and methods of learning, one can reveal how they affect the assimilation of the material, the features of its understanding and memorization. Such teachers known in our country as V.A. Sukhomlinsky, A.S. Makarenko, S.A. Amonashvili, V.F. Shatalov, E.A. Yamburg and others have achieved high results in training and raising children due to experimentation, creating innovative sites in education.

    The laboratory experiment is carried out in specially created conditions. In particular, the features of cognitive processes (memory, thinking, perception, etc.) can be studied using specially created equipment. In pedagogical psychology, this type of experiment is practically not used, as the problem of transferring the data obtained in laboratory conditions into real pedagogical practice arises.

    By targetsconducting highlight statement and forming experiment.The purpose of the stateing experiment is to measure the cash level (for example, the level of development of abstract logical thinking, the degree of formation of moral representations). In this case, the species of the stateing experiment are tests. The data obtained form the basis of the forming experiment.

    The resulting experiment is aimed at active transformation, the development of certain sides of the psyche. Thanks to the experimental genetic method created by L.S. Vygotsky, it became possible not only to identify the qualitative features of the development of higher mental functions, but also purposefully influenced their formation. Within the framework of the formative experiment, the possibility of formation of scientific and theoretical thinking among the younger students was proved, conditions for intensive study were created foreign language, ensured rapprochement of educational and professional activities.

    The special form of the experiment is a study with tests.Tests are standardized tasks intended for measurement in comparable values \u200b\u200bof individual-psychological properties of the individual, as well as knowledge, skills and skills. In pedagogical practice, for the first time tests began to be used in 1864 in the UK to test knowledge of students. At the end of the XIX century. F. Galton, the founder of testology, a number of tasks were developed to evaluate the individual characteristics of a person. The term "test" was introduced by the American psychologist J. M. Kettel (1890). They created a series of tests aimed at determining the level of intellectual development. The scales created by A. Bina in 1905 are known for the examination of children aged 3-11 years. The scale included 30 tasks of various difficulties and was intended for the diagnosis of mental retardation. In 1911, V. Stern introduced the concept of an intelligence coefficient (IQ), the measurement of which remains one of the objectives of testing.

    In Russia, tests began to be applied at the beginning of the XX century. A.P. Boltunov in 1928 was created "measuring scale of the mind" based on the scale of A. Bina.

    Currently, tests are used in the professional selection system, with Pato psychological diagnosisTo determine the level of child's readiness to enter school, to identify the features of the formation of cognitive processes and personal properties (at the stage of adaptation to school, when moving on average, when examining high school students). Testing can be used to identify the psychological characteristics of a child experiencing difficulties in communicating, in training, etc. A psychologist can offer a teacher to pass psychological testing to identify his psychological features. Psychologist, these data will help when consulting work.

    The quality of the test is determined by its reliability (the stability of the test results), validity (test compliance of the diagnostic targets), which differentiates the definition force (the ability of the test to subdivide the subjects of the severity of the test characteristic).

    A variety of tests are projective tests,whose feature is a study personal characteristics In involuntary reactions (generation of free associations, the interpretation of random configurations, a description of the pictures with an indefinite plot, drawing on the topic).

    The test of free associations can be conducted under the guise of the game "We think out loud." The experimenter gives a certain word, and the child calls ten associations that come to his head in connection with this word. Initially, several camouflage words-incentives are presented, and then called meaningful words, such as "Your Father", "Your Mother", etc.

    Using the Test Top Uppercecia (TAT) can help collect information about the relationship of the child with others. A set of plot and unustool pictures in a black and white version allows the subject depending on the level of development of thinking, speech, feelings and on the basis of previous life experience (apperception) in different ways to interpret the depicted situation. Experimentar, using such a test, can solve diagnostic and corrective tasks, discussing questions with subjects: "Who is depicted in the picture? What happens in the picture? What do characterians think and feel pictures? What led to what happened? What will happen?".

    The most common method used by the education psychologist is picturesque techniques. Yet in1914 prof. A. Lazur tried to use drawing lessons to study the identity of the child. These technicians became the most popular in the 1950s. Currently, drawing tests "House - Tree - Man", "Self-portrait", "Constructive drawing of a person from geometric figures"," Painting of the World "," Free Drawing "," Family Figure ".

    Some psychologists use a drawing in psychological diagnosis, based on the following principles:

    Creating a picture, for the occurrence of which it was possible to observe;

    Classification of drawing from the point of view of the level of development and from the point of view of unusual signs;

    Consideration of the figure as the result of polyfunctional activities. This activity may be a field of projection of intensive experiences;

    According to the principle, when more mistakes in psychological diagnostics were caused by exaggerated projective interpretation than the omission of projective interpretation.

    Figure should not be used as the only starting point for projective interpretation.

    Projective trends should be checked with research, comparison with the results of further testing, in a conversation with parents, etc.

    The drawing can appear indicator not only creative abilities, but also pathological processes (functional and organic).

    The basic aspects of the interpretation of the family drawing include: a) the structure of the family drawing; b) features of drawn family members; c) the drawing process.

    Method of studying activitiesallows you to collect facts, relying on the analysis of materialized mental activities. The researcher, using this method, does not matter with the person himself, but with the material products of its activities: a training (writing, solved problem), the game (the plot of the child invented by the child, built of cubes of the house), creative (poems, stories, fairy tales). When implementing this method, it is important to try to reproduce the process of manufacturing the product and thereby discover the features of the person.

    Requirements for the method: 1) Analyzing the products of activity should be installed whether they are the result of a typical characteristic for of this person activities or created by chance; 2) you need to know in what conditions activities flowed; 3) analyze not single, and many products activities.

    Pollization methodprovides information to obtain information during the direct (conversation, interview) or mediated (survey, survey) of communication. For competent suritation and interviews, it is important to clearly formulate issues, so that they definitely understood the tests. In psychology, the rules for compiling issues (open and closed), their location in the desired order, grouping in separate blocks. Most often, when drawing up questionnaires and questionnaires, the following errors are found: words that are scientific terms or incomprehensible respondents are used; As the signs of a sign, non-specific and general concepts are applied ("often - rarely", "a lot - little"), they should be specified (regularly - "once a week", "once a month", "once a year", etc. .); The psychologist is trying to captivate the respondent, offering unequal answers or using slang.

    To hold a conversation, an environment of trust between the psychologist and those he answers. It is necessary to know the rules for establishing contact, to own the techniques of effective communication, ways to locate the interlocutor.

    Sociometry- method of studying features interpersonal relationship in small groups. It is that the main measuring reception is the question, responding to which each member of the group shows its attitude to others. The results are recorded on the sociogram - the graph on which the arrows indicate the elections (rejection) of the group members, or to the table in which the number of elections received by each member of the group is calculated. Positive status characterizes the leadership position of the group member. Negative - disorganizing tendencies in personality behavior. Group and individual forms of sociometry, as well as modifications in the form of a game, painted tests, etc.

    Biographical method- collection and analysis of data on the life path of the personality. The study of life style and personality scenario (the method of geogramm, the analysis of early children's memories) can be used to identify the features of the formation of a child's life style. This method carries a large therapeutic and correctional load both under conditions of individual and group counseling.

    The geneogram is the form of a family pedigree, which records information about family members, at least three generations. The gene image shows family information graphically, which allows you to quickly visualize complex family patterns. The geogram also serves as a source of hypotheses on how relevant problems are associated with a family context and development in time.

    An analysis of early childhood memories is aimed at identifying the actual life-style personality. The psychologist proposes as much as possible to describe the many earliest children's memories and try to give them the name, starting with phrases like "My life is ...", "live - that means ...". When conducting a method, it is important to record attention on the details of memories, on an emotional attitude to what is happening in childhood, to the peculiarities of the people presented in the memoil.

    As part of the transactional analysis, the procedures for studying the life scenario are proposed. The psychologist stimulates during a conversation with the testing discussion of such issues as: "In honor of which you were called? How did you be a child in the family (first, second ...) and how did the emergence of the second child affect you? What proverbs or sayings can reflect the values \u200b\u200bprescribed by your family? How did your future parents planned? " etc.

    Mathematical methods in a psychological and pedagogical studyused as auxiliary when planning and processing the results of experiment, test surveys, survey and survey.

    Methods of rendering psychological assistance and supportsubjects educational process aimed at creating conditions for a holistic psychological development Schoolchildren and to solve specific problems arising in the development process. These include: active social training (training), individual and group counseling, psychological correction.

    Active Social Training (Training) -this is a combination of methods aimed at developing knowledge, social installations, skills and self-knowledge skills and self-regulation, communication and interpersonal interaction. Takes that use a psychologist during training: role-playing game, group discussion, psychogympics, training of behavioral skills, analysis of situations, elements of psychodiagnostics, etc. For receiving training participants feedback Audio and video equipment can be used. To date, a large number of active programs have been accumulated in the arsenal of pedagogical psychology. social learningensuring the work of a psychologist with children, with teachers and parents.

    Purpose psychological counselingit is a cultural and productive person with a sense of perspective, acting consciously, able to develop various behaviors strategies and analyze the situation from different points of view. When advising the school as an organization, a psychologist is focused on optimizing organizational and managerial structures. The psychologist can act as an organizational development consultant, directing its actions to the change in social relations, the views of people and the structures of the Organization in order to improve its operation and ensure development. Consultation can be carried out in individual and group forms. Methodological and theoretical preparedness of the psychologist, orientation in the main approaches to understanding the goals and means of counseling, the specifics of the stated problem determine the basis of its work with a person or group. In the practice of the school psychologist, behavioral, transactional, humanistic and cognitive-oriented approaches, elements of gestalt-therapy, psychosynthesis, bodily-oriented therapy are most successfully used.

    Psychological Correction -directed psychological impact on certain psychological structures in order to ensure the full development and functioning of the personality. In the arsenal of school psychologists, many programs aimed at the development and correction of the cognitive field of students, an emotional and personal sphere.

    Questions and tasks

    1. What are the generality methods used in pedagogical psychology?

    2. What strategies of psychological and pedagogical research do you know?

    3. Name the methods of psychological support and support that a school psychologist can use.

    4. Spend a psychodiagnostic child examination and his relationship to the family using the Family Figure method. Think out the instructions, the procedure for conducting a study, methods of interpretation.

    5. During the interview when the child is received, parents are present in the first grade. Whenever the child is medleet with the answer or mistaken, the mother behaves very unrestrained: tells the child, pushes it, is indignant to the difficulty of tasks. How to behave a psychologist in this case?

    Seminar Plan

    "Principles and methods of pedagogical psychology"

    1. Humanitarian ideals of the scientific relations and principles of pedagogical psychology.

    2. Strategy for research and formation strategy.

    3. Principles of building a psychodiagnostic work of a school psychologist.

    4. Methods of psychological assistance and support.

    Main literature

    1. Bityanova M.R.Organization of psychological service at school. M., 1998.

    2. Gilbuch Yu.Z.Psychodiagnostics at school. M., 1989.

    3. Loseva V.K.Draw a family: diagnosis of family relationships. M., 1995.

    4. Orlov A.B.Methods of modern age and pedagogical psychology. M., 1982.

    5. Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I.Human psychology. Introduction to the psychology of subjectivity. M., 1995.

    6. Shvanzara I.Diagnosis of mental development. Prague, 1998.

    additional literature

    7. Vasilyuk F.E.From psychological practice to psychotechnical theory // Moscow psychotherapeutic magazine. 1992. M 1.

    8. James M., Jongvard D.Born to win. M., 1993.

    9. Klyueva N.V., Kasatkina Yu.V.We teach children to communicate. Yaroslavl, 1996.

    10. Practical psychology of education / ed. I.V. Dubrovina. M., 1997.

    11. Rogov E.I.Desktop book of a practical psychologist in education. M., 1995.

    12. Subbotina L.Yu.Development of imagination in children. Yaroslavl, 1996.

    13. Tikhomirova L.F., Basov A.V.Development of logical thinking of children. Yaroslavl, 1995.

    14. Romanova E.S., Potemkin O.F.Projective methods in psychological diagnostics. M., 1991.

    15. Stepanov S.S.Diagnostics of intelligence by the method of a pattern test. M., 1997.

    16. Cheremoshkin L.V.Development of children's memory. Yaroslavl, 1997.

    17. Chernikov A.Genogram and family life analysis categories. // Psychological consultation. 1997. Vol. one.


    Similar information.


    Recall that according to research by B. G. Ananyev in psychology it is customary to allocate four Maintenance groups Psychological research methods:

    1)organizational methods(Comparative, Longitudinal (travelery, the development of the investigated phenomenon for several years), comprehensive);

    2) empirical methods: but) observation methods (observation and self-surveillance); b) experimental methods (laboratory, field, natural, forming or, according to B. G. Ananya, psychological and pedagogical); in) psychodiagnostic methods (Standardized and projective tests, questionnaires, sociometry, interviews and conversations); d) praximetric methodsCIS. G. Ananyev, techniques for analyzing processes and products activities (chronometry, cyclography, professional description, work assessment); e) modeling method (mathematical, cybernetic, etc.) and e) biographical methods (analysis of facts, dates, events, human life certificates);

    3) data processing:methods of quantitative (mathematic-statistical) and high-quality analysis;

    4) interpretation methods:including genetic and structural method.

    In the practical activity of each individual teacher, the main observation and conversation, followed by analyzing the learning activities of the learners. Observation - The main empirical method for targeted systematic study of man. Observed may not know that it is an object of observation. Observation is implemented using a special technique, which contains a description of the entire observation procedure:

    a) the choice of the observation object and the situation in which it will be observed; b) Program of observations: a list of parties, properties, features of the object that will be recorded; c) a method for fixing the information received.

    When observed, a number of requirements should be observed: the presence of an observation plan, a set of signs, indicators that should be fixed and evaluated by an observer, preferably several expert observers, the estimates of which can be compared, building a hypothesis that explains the observed phenomena, testing the hypothesis in subsequent observations. Based on the observation, an expert assessment may be given. The results of the observations are recorded in special protocols, identified certain indicators, features that should be identified when observing the behavior of the subjects under the observation plan. Protocol data is subjected to high-quality and quantitative processing.

    Conversation - Widespread in pedagogical psychology and in pedagogical practice, the empirical method for obtaining information about a person in communicating with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. Answers are recorded either by tape recorder recording or stenograph. The conversation is a subjective psychodiagnostic method, since the teacher either researcher subjectively assesses the answers, the behavior of the student, with his behavior, failing, gestures, and issues affect the student, causing this or that degree of openness and confidence-distrust of the subject.



    Questioning - The empirical method for obtaining information on the basis of answers to specially prepared issues that make up the questionnaire. Preparation of the questionnaire requires professionalism. Questioning can be oral, written, individual, group. The material of the survey is subjected to quantitative and high-quality processing.

    In pedagogical psychology used method of product analysis. This is the most common research method in pedagogical practice. Purposeful, systematic analysis of works, presentations, texts of oral and written messages (responses) of students, that is, the content, forms of these messages, contributes to the understanding of the teacher of the personal and educational orientation of students, depth and accuracy of the development of the study subject, their attitudes towards studying, school, Institute, the most educational subject and teachers. In relation to the study of personal, individual psychological characteristics of students or their activities, a method of generalizing independent variables is used, which requires generalization of the data of one trainee received from different teachers. It is possible to generalize and only data obtained in different conditions, when studying the personality in different types Activities. "The purpose of any experimental study– make so that the conclusions based on a limited amount of data remain reliable outside the experiment. This is called a generalization. "

    Testing - psychodiagnostic methods of using standardized test methods for identifying and quantifying the level of development of cognitive, intellectual, typological and personal characteristics of students and teachers, the structure of interpersonal relationships and interactions in collectives. Development of tests is made by psychologists-professionals. Tested tests with high reliability and validity, including standardized rules for conducting testing and processing, interpretation of the data obtained, can be applied by teachers, school psychologists after preliminary training and mastering test techniques.

    Test reliability shows that the test is able to reveal sustainable psychological characteristics man and resistant to the effects of random factors, Therefore, it is mainly maintained by the uncertainty of the test results and when re-testing the same person under different conditions, after long intervals. Test validity shows that the test is able to identify exactly those parameters, for which claims, can enjoy prognostic.

    In pedagogical practice, special tests of educational and professional achievements are also used, which measure the level of knowledge, skills, the effectiveness of programs and the learning process. Tests achievements are test batteries, cover learning programs For holistic educational systems, all tasks are given in the form of questions with multiple selection of answers. They are considered as a means of objective assessment and tool for troubleshooting training programs.

    Experiment - the main empirical method scientific researchReceived widespread use in pedagogical psychology. During the experiment, the experimenter affects the object under study in accordance with the curiosity of the study.

    Any kind of E. cheriment Includes the following stages: 1) setting: concretization of hypothesis in a certain task; 2) planning the stroke of the experiment; 3) Experiment: data collection; 4) analysis of the obtained experimental data; 5) Conclusions that allow you to make experimental data.

    Differ laboratoryand natural experiment.The published test tests know that a certain test is carried out above them, and the natural experiment passes under normal conditions of work, study, people's livelihoods, Ilyidi does not suspect that they are participants in the experiment. Both laboratory and natural experiments are divided into a statement and psychological-pedagogical forming experiment.

    Stating experiment Used in cases where you need to establish the cash state of existing phenomena. In the course forming experimentwe study changes in the level of knowledge, skills, relationships, values, abilities and personal Development students under targeted training and educational impact. The experimenter determines the purpose of the study, puts forward a hypothesis, changes the conditions and forms of influence, strictly fixes the results of the experiment in special protocols. Experimental data are processed by methods mathematical statistics (correlation, rank, factor analysis, etc.).

    The forming experiment with a behavior approach to learning is focused on identifying conditions to obtain the required predetermined reaction of the student. The resulting experiment with an activity approach assumes that the experimenter must identify the objective composition of the activity that is going to form, develop methods for the formation of an indicative, executive and control part of the activity.

    Among methods aimed at studying human labor activities are widely used professionism method–the descriptive and technical and psychophysiological characteristics of human professional activity.This method is focused on collecting, description, analysis, systematization of material about professional activity and its organization from different sides. As a result of Professional Professional professionalor data reports (technical, sanitary and hygienic, technological, psychological, psychophysiological) on a particular process of labor and its organization, as well as psychogramsprofessions. Psychograms are a "portrait" professionComposed on the basis of a psychological analysis of specific employment activities, which includes professionally important qualities (PVCs) and psychological and psychophysiological components, are actualized by this activity and ensuring its execution. The importance of the method of professional psychology vocational education It is explained by the fact that it allows you to simulate the content and methods of formation professionally important qualities Personality specified by a profession and build the process of their development on the basis of data from science.

    Based on such methodological principles of psychology as systemicity, complexity, principle of development, as well as the principle of unity of consciousness and activity, pedagogical psychology in each particular study applies complex methods (Private methods and research procedures). but one of the methods always stands as the main one, but others - Additional. Most often, with a focused study, as the main in pedagogical psychology, it appears, as already noted, the forming (training) experiment, and the following are observation, self-surveillance, conversation, analysis of activity, testing.

    It should be noted that any psychological and pedagogical study includes at least four major stage:

    1) preparatory (acquaintance with a slice, setting goals, hypotheses based on the study of literature on the problem of research, planning),

    2) actually research (for example, experimental and sociometric),

    3) stage quality and quantitative analysis (processing) of the data obtained;

    4) stage interpretation, Actually, generalizations, establishing the causes, factors resulting in the characteristics of the flow of the investigated phenomenon.

    Observation - the main, most common in pedagogical psychology (and in pedagogical practice as a whole) empirical method of studying a person. Under observation It is understood as a focused, organized and certainly fixed perception of the object under study. The results of fixing the observation data are called a description of the behavior of the object. Observation can be carried out directly or using technical means and data logging methods (photo, audio and video equipment, observation cards, etc.). However, with the help of observation, it is possible to detect only the phenomena occurring in ordinary, "normal" conditions, and for the knowledge of the essential properties of the object, it is necessary to create special conditions other than the "normal".

      The main features of the observation method are (see Animation):

      • the immediate connection of the observer and the observed object;

        preissance (emotional painting) observation;

        the complexity (sometimes is the impossibility) of re-observation.

    There are several types of observations (see Fig. 6). Depending on the position of the observer stand out open and hidden Observation. The first means that the subject is known for their scientific controls, and the researcher's activities are perceived visually. Hidden surveillance involves the fact of the hidden tracing actions of the subject. The difference between the first and second consists in comparison of data on the progress of psychological and pedagogical processes and the behavior of participants in the educational interaction in the face of the feeling of supervision and freedom from the eye of the foreign. Stand out further solid and selective Observation. The first processes are covered in a holistic form: from their beginning to end, before completion. The second is a dotted, selective fixation of certain phenomena studied, processes. For example, in the study of the complexity of teacher and student work in the lesson, there is a whole cycle of training from its start at the beginning of the lesson until the end of the lesson. And when studying neurogenic situations in relations, a student teacher researcher seems to be surrounding, watching from the outside of these events, to then describe the causes of their occurrence, behavior of both conflicting parties, i.e. Teacher and student. The result of the study in which the observation method is used is largely depends on the researcher himself, from its "culture of observation". It is necessary to take into account specific requirements for the procedure for obtaining and interpretation of information in observation. Among them are especially allocated as follows: 1. Observation is available only external facts having speech and motor manifestations. You can not watch intelligence, but how a person solves the task; Not sociability, but the nature of interaction with other people, etc. 2. It is necessary that the observed phenomenon, behavior is determined operational, in terms of real behavior, i.e. The recorded characteristics must be as descriptive as possible and as long as possible. 3. To observe the most important moments of behavior (critical cases) must be allocated. 4. The observer should be able to record the behavior of the estimated person a long period of time, in many roles and critical situations. 5. The reliability of observation increases in the event of a coincidence of the testimony of several observers. 6. Role relations between the observer and the observed must be eliminated. For example, the behavior of the student will be different in the presence of parents, teachers and peers. Therefore, external estimates given to the same person on the same set of qualities of people who occupy a different position in relation to it can be different. 7. Evaluation in observation should not be subject to subjective influences (sympathy and antipathy, transfer relationships from parents to the student, with the performance of the student on his behavior, etc.). Conversation - widespread in pedagogical psychology empirical method obtaining information (information) about the student in communicating with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. This is specific to pedagogical psychology method of studying student behavior. Dialogue between two people, during which one person identifies the psychological features of another, calledconversation method . Psychologists of various schools and directions widely use it in their research. It is enough to call the Piaget and representatives of his school, humanistic psychologists, founders and followers of "deep" psychology, etc. IN conversations, dialogues, discussions are revealed by student relations, teachers, their feelings and intentions, assessments and positions. Researchers of all times in conversations received such information, which no other methods cannot be obtained. The psychological and pedagogical conversation as a research method is characterized by targeted researcher's attempts to penetrate into the inner world of subjects of the educational process, identify the causes of certain actions. Information on the moral, ideological, political and other views of the subjects, their attributes of interest to the researcher are also obtained by conversations. But conversations are very complex and not always a reliable method. Therefore, it is used most often as an additional - to obtain the necessary clarification and clarifications about the fact that it was not quite clear when observing or using other methods.

      For increase reliability The results of the conversation and the removal of the inevitable shade of subjectivism should be used by special measures. These include:

      • the presence of a clear, thoughtful, taking into account the characteristics of the student's personality and steadily conducted in the life of the conversation plan;

        discussion of the research researchers in various perspectives and ties of school life;

        variation of questions, setting them in a convenient form for the interlocutor;

        the ability to use the situation, resourcefulness in matters and answers.

    The conversation is included as an additional method into the structure of the psychological and pedagogical experiment at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the student, teacher, gives them instructions, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of a post-exceptional interview. Interview Called a targeted survey. The interview is defined as "pseudobested": the interviewer must always remember that he is a researcher, not to miss the plan and talk in the right direction. Questioning - The empirical socio-psychological method of obtaining information on the basis of answers to specially trained, meeting the main task of research issues of the questionnaire. Questioning is the method of mass collection of material using specially designed questionnaires, called questionnaires. The survey is based on the assumption that a person frankly responds to the questions given to him. However, as recent studies of the effectiveness of this method show, these expectations are justified by approximately half. This circumstance sharply narrows the range of application of the application and undermines confidence in the objectivity of the results obtained (Poam V.A., 1995; abstract). Pedagogues and psychologists questioning attracted the possibility of fast mass surveys of students, teachers, parents, low-cost techniques and the possibility of automated processing of the collected material.

      Now in psychological and pedagogical studies, various types of questionnaires are widely applied:

      • open, requiring independent constructing of the response;

        closed, in which students have to choose one of the ready-made answers;

        registered, requiring specifying the names of the subject;

        anonymous, suitable without it, etc.

      When drawing up, the questionnaire takes into account:

      • form of questions - open or closed;

        formulating issues (clarity, without supper answers, etc.);

        the number and procedure for following issues. In psychological and pedagogical practice, the number of questions usually relates no more than from 30-40 minutes by the method of questionnaire; The procedure for issues is most often determined by random numbers.

    The survey may be oral, written, individual, group, but in any case should meet two requirements - representativeness and uniformity of the sample. The material of the survey is subjected to quantitative and high-quality processing. Test method. Due to the specifics of the subject of pedagogical psychology, one of the above-mentioned methods is used to a greater extent, others are in less. However, the testing method is becoming increasingly distributed in pedagogical psychology. Test (English Test - Sample, Test, Check) - In Psychology - fixed Time Test, intended for the establishment of quantitative (and high-quality) individually psychological differences (Burlachuk, 2000. P. 325). The test is the main tool of psychodiagnostic surveys, with which the psychological diagnosis is carried out.

      From other methods of survey, testing is different:

      • accuracy;

        simplicity;

        affordable;

        the ability to automate.

    (http://www.vopsy.ru/journals_all/issues/1998/985/985126.htm; see Article Borisova E.M. "Basics of psychodiagnostics").

    Testing is not new, but the study method (Burlachuk, 2000, pp. 325; abstract) is not used in pedagogical psychology. Back in 80-90. XIX century Researchers began to study individual differences in people. This led to the emergence of the so-called test experiment - research using tests (A. Dalton, A. Kettel, etc.). Application tests served as an impetus for development psychometric method, the foundations of which were laid by B. Henri and A. Bina. Measuring school success, intellectual development, the degree of formation of many other qualities with the help of tests has become an integral part of the wide educational practice. Psychology, providing pedagogy tool for analysis, joined it closely (separating the testing of pedagogical from testing psychological is sometimes impossible) (http://psychology.net.ru/articles/d20020106230736.html; see Psychological tests). If we talk about purely pedagogical aspects of testing, we indicate, first of all, to use prolifecy tests. The tests of skills, such as reading, letter, simple arithmetic operations, as well as various tests for the diagnosis of the level of training are widely used, and identifying the degree of learning, skills for all learning subjects. Typically, testing as a method of psychological and pedagogical research is merged with practical testing of current progress, identifying the level of training, the quality control of the learning material. The most complete and systematized description of the tests is presented in the work of A. Anastasi "Psychological Testing". Analyzing Testing in Education, the scientist notes that all types of existing tests are used in this process, however, among all types of standardized tests, the achievement tests are numerically superior to all the others. They were created to measure the objectivity of programs and learning processes. Usually they "give an ultimate assessment of the achievements of the individual upon completion of the training, their main interest is concentrated on the fact that the individual can do to date" ( Anastasi A., 1982. P. 36-37). (http://www.psy.msu.ru/about/lab/ht.html; see the Center for Psychological and Professional Testing "Humanitarian Technologies" MSU).

      A.K. Erofeev, analyzing the basic test requirements, allocates the following basic knowledge groups that the test must have:

      • basic principles of regulatory oriented testing;

        types of tests and scope of their use;

        the basics of psychometrics (i.e., in which units are measured in the system of psychological qualities);

        test quality criteria (methods for determining validity and reliability of the test);

        ethical norms of psychological testing (Erofeev A.K., 1987).

    All of the above means that the use of testing in pedagogical psychology requires special training, high qualifications and responsibility. Experiment - One of the main (along with the observation) of scientific knowledge methods in general, psychological research in particular. Differs from observation by active intervention in the situation from the researcher carrying out systematic manipulation of one or more variables (factors) and the registration of related changes in the behavior of the object being studied (see Fig. 7). Properly supplied experiment allows you to check hypothesis in causal casual relationships, not limited to the relationship of communication ( correlation) Between variables. There are traditional and factor plans for the experiment (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/g-fak.html; see a group of research factors of the formation of individuality PI RAO). For traditional planning Only alone changes independent variable, P. factor - some. The advantage of the latter is the ability to assess the interaction of factors - changes in the nature of the influence of one of the variables depending on the value of the other. For statistical processing of the results of the experiment in this case applies dispersion analysis (R. Fisher). If the studied area is relatively unknown and the hypothesis system is absent, they are talking about a pilot experiment, the results of which can help clarify the direction of further analysis. When there are two competing hypotheses and an experiment allows you to choose one of them, talking about the decisive experiment. The control experiment is carried out in order to verify any dependencies. The use of the experiment, however, is encountered on fundamental limitations associated with the inability in some cases carry out an arbitrary change in variables. Thus, in the differential psychology and psychology of the personality, empirical dependencies mostly have the status of correlations (ie, probabilistic and statistical dependencies) and, as a rule, do not always allow to draw conclusions about causal relations. One of the difficulties of applying the experiment in psychology is that the researcher often turns out to be included in the situation of communicating with the person surveyed (subjects) and may involuntarily affect its behavior (Fig. 8). A special category of methods of psychological research and impact form formatives, or training, experiments. They allow you to essentially form the features of such mental processes as perception, attention, memory, thinking.

    Procedure experiment It consists in the directional creation or selection of such conditions that ensure reliable allocation of the factor under study, and in registering changes related to its impact. Most often in psychological and pedagogical experiments deal with 2 groups: the experimental, which includes the studied factor, and the control, in which it is missing. The experimental at its discretion may modify the conditions for conducting experience and observe the consequences of such a change. This, in particular, makes it possible to find the most rational techniques in educational work with students. For example, changing the conditions for completing one or another educational material, can be installed under what conditions memory It will be the fastest, durable and accurate. Conducting studies under the same conditions with different subjects, the experimenter may establish age and individual characteristics of mental processes in each of them.

      Psychological and pedagogical experiments vary:

      • in the form of

        number of variables;

      • character of the organization of research.

    In the form of carrying out two main types of experiment - laboratory and natural. Laboratory experiment It is carried out in specially organized artificial, conditions designed to ensure the purity of the results. For this, the side effects of all at the same time occurring processes are eliminated. The laboratory experiment allows with the help of registering devices to accurately measure the time of mental processes, such as the speed of the human reaction, the rate of formation of educational, labor skills. It is used in cases where it is necessary to obtain accurate and reliable Indicators under strictly defined conditions. More limited use has laboratory experiment In the study of personality manifestations, character. On the one hand, the object of the study is complex and multifaceted here, on the other, the famous artificiality of the laboratory presents great difficulties. Exploring the manifestations of the personality in artificially created special conditions, in a private, limited situation, we do not always have the reason to conclude that similar manifestations will be characteristic of the same person in natural life circumstances. The artificiality of the experimental situation is a significant disadvantage of this method. It can entail a violation of the natural course of the processes under study. For example, commemorative and interesting educational material, in natural conditions, the student reaches different results than when it is proposed in unusual conditions to remember the experimental material, which directly does not represent interest for the child. Therefore, the laboratory experiment must be carefully organized and can be combined with other, more natural methods. The data of the laboratory experiment represent mainly theoretical value; The findings made on their basis can be distributed to real life practices with well-known restrictions (Milgram Art., 2000; abstract). Natural experiment . These shortcomings of the laboratory experiment are accomplished to some extent when organizing a natural experiment. For the first time this method was proposed in 1910 A.F. Lazur at the 1st All-Russian Congress on Experimental Pedagogy. The natural experiment is carried out under normal conditions within the framework of the usual activities, for example, training sessions or games. Often created by the experimenter, the situation may remain outside the consciousness of the subjects; In this case, the factor is positive to the study is the full naturalness of their behavior. In other cases (for example, when changing the teaching technique, school equipment, a day mode, etc.), the experimental situation is created openly, in such a way that the subjects themselves are made by the participants of its creation. Such a study requires particularly careful planning and training. It makes sense to use when the data must be obtained in extremely short time and without interference for the main activity of the subjects. Essential flaw natural experiment - the inevitable presence of uncontrolled interference, i.e. factors whose influence is not established and cannot be quantified. A.F. The Lazur expressed the essence of a natural experiment as follows: "With naturally experimental study, we do not use artificial techniques, we do not produce experiments in artificial laboratory conditions, do not weaken the child from the usual situation of his life, and experiment with natural forms of the external environment. We investigate the personality itself And therefore, it becomes available to the survey all the influence of both the person on the Wednesday and the environment per person. Here the experiment is in life. We are exploring not individual mental processes, as is usually done (for example, the memory is examined by learning meaningless syllables, attention - crossing icons On tables), and research and mental functions, and the person in general. At the same time, we do not use artless material, but school subjects "(Lazur A.F., 1997; abstract). By the number of variables studieddistinguish one-dimensional and multi-dimensional experiments. One-dimensional experiment It assumes the allocation in the study by one dependent and one independent variable. It is most often implemented in laboratory experiment. Multidimensional experiment . In a natural experiment, the idea of \u200b\u200bstudying phenomena is not isolated, but in their relationship and interdependence. Therefore, the multidimensional experiment is most often implemented here. It requires simultaneous measurement of many associated features, the independence of which is unknown in advance. Analysis of the links between the set of studied signs, identifying the structure of these relations, its dynamics under the influence of training and education are the main purpose of the multidimensional experiment. The results of the experimental study are often not identified pattern, sustainable dependence, and a number of more or less fully fixed empirical facts. Such, for example, obtained as a result of the experiment describing the game activity of children, experimental data on the impact on any activity of such a factor, as the presence of other people and the associated motive of the Competition. These data carrying often descriptive nature do not disclose another psychological mechanism of phenomena and represent only a more definite material, narrowing the further search sphere. Therefore, the results of the experiment in pedagogy and psychology will often be considered as an intermediate material and the baseline for further research work (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-teor-exp.html; see the laboratory of theoretical and ex- Perimental problems of the psychology of the development of PI RAO).