The result of anthropogenic environmental impact is the global problem of humanity. It is possible to solve it only by the effort of the entire world community. This article will describe what an anthropogenic impact is why it happens and what will lead to.

Manifestations

Changes in the environment caused by human activity are called anthropogenic effects. For almost 40 thousand years, people, trying to subjugate their nature, promote the evolution of the biosphere. This process cannot be called neither negative nor positive, you can observe those and other results of anthropogenic effects. Basically, the following types of human activity are distinguished against nature:

  • destructive (or destructive) - consumption of natural resources, anthropogenic environmental pollution, occasion of the ozone layer, etc.;
  • stabilizing - recovery process, the destruction of polluting factors (factories, exhaust gases), a decrease in the number of natural resources used (reducing oil, gas, gas, coal at the expense of new energy sources);
  • constructive - Reclamation of the landscape, expansion of the territories of "green zones", transition to electric vehicles, solar panels and other sources of fuel and energy that do not harm the environment.

Destructive activities prevailed at the end of the 19th - early 20th century, when at first the industrial revolution forced to build plants far from concern about ecology, and then global wars did not give the opportunity to think about environmental protection.


Only at the end of the 20th century, the activities of citizens of developed countries became first stabilizing, and then constructive. Already over these several dozen years of dissemination of environmental activities, environmental movements, humanity has achieved some success: a number of animal populations have been preserved, in Japan and most countries of the Western forests planting more than being cut down.

Causes and consequences of anthropogenic effects

A change in the environment is a desire to improve the quality of life. In the desire to increase the number of material goods, simplify and reduce the cost of production, people were forced to begin destructive activities in relation to nature - cut down the forests, build dams, kill animals. Such behavior is caused by misunderstanding, lack of ideas about the consequences of the negative impact of a person on the environment.

In the 21st century, despite the emergence of species of modern production, the unaware of certain technical structures (coal power plants), the natural pledge continues, and this leads to the following consequences:

  1. Soil pollution. Emissions of harmful gases from plants and exhaust pipes are settled on Earth, which leads to the death of microorganisms and soil animals that biologists classify as "lower". A nutrition chain is disturbed, since the highest types of animals are deprived of healthy food.
  2. Reducing the fertile ability of the soil (the problem is solved by land reclamation). It occurs due to improper maintenance of economic work on Earth (sowing of seeds not intended for this type of soil, oversaturation by chemicals and household garbage).
  3. The anthropogenic effect of a person on the soil is inextricably linked with the contamination of groundwater. This concerns both mineral springs (their number in the Caucasus over the past hundred years has decreased several times) and ordinary water produced for household needs.
  4. Pollution of natural water (hydrosphere). The destruction of the shell occurs due to discharge of production waste into natural reservoirs without cleaning. In civilized countries, legal liability is introduced for such activities, but this does not stop the unfair owners of the factories. An indicative example of anthropogenic influence on the hydrosphere is Lake Baikal - the largest in the world, the amount of garbage in which, at the moment reached the critical level.
  5. Air pollution. The main source is a power plant on organic fuel. Malicious are automotive exhaust, chemical production and incineration plants. As a result, the percentage of pure oxygen content is reduced, and the amount of toxic elements increases.


The problem of the consequences of the anthropogenic environmental impact is global, but not fatal. Humanity has time to restore and destroy polluting sources.

Types of exposure

For several tens of thousands of years, people have learned to influence the environment in absolutely different ways.

Environmentalists allocate several directions of anthropogenic activities:

  • material - an increase in landfills, building technical structures (most common);
  • chemical - soil processing (currently there are harmless and reducing species of such substances);
  • biological - reduction or increase in animal populations, air purification;
  • mechanical - cutting down forests, waste in reservoirs.

Each type of impact can be used and adversely influence the environment. From a scientific point of view, it is impossible to allocate a separate type of activity that causes more harm nature or preserving it.

To assess anthropogenic activities in relation to nature, environmentalists conduct analysis of its results and give a hygienic characteristic. Measurements of the composition of the air are carried out, the number of harmful substances in the reservoirs is revealed and the area of \u200b\u200blandscaping is calculated (usually in large cities). In many countries, there are "provisions on hygienic monitoring", according to which environmentalists work.

South America is urged by man unevenly. Only the outstanding areas of the continent, mostly the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and some areas of the Andes are thickly populated. At the same time, internal areas, such as a wooded Amazon lowland, until recently remained actually not mastered.

The question of the origin of the indigenous population of South America - Indians - for a long time caused disagreements.

The most common point of view on the settlement of South America by Mongoloids from Asia across North America is about 17-19 thousand years ago.

The centers of the formation of a person and the path of his settlement on the earth's ball (according to V.P. Alekseev): 1 - Praodin of mankind and settlement of it; 2 - primary western focus of reassessment and resettlement of protoavravoids; 3 - the resettlement of the protoevropoids; 4 - the resettlement of protonugroids; 5 - Primary oriental focus of reoccupation and the resettlement of proto-producanoids; 6 - North American tertiary focus and settlement of it; 7 - Central-South American focus and settlement from it.

But, based on some anthropological community of the Indian peoples of South America with the peoples of Oceania (a wide nose, wavy hair) and on their presence of the same labor tools, some scientists expressed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe settlement of South America by the islands of the Pacific Ocean. However, this point is shared by a few. The presence of oceanic devils in residents of South America, most scientists tend to explain to the fact that representatives of the oceanic race could also be penetrated through the northeast of Asia and North America with Mongoloids.

Currently, the number of Indians in South America is much more compared to the northern, although for the period of the colonization of the mainland by Europeans, it has declined much. In some countries, Indians still constitute a significant percentage of the population. In Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, their about half of the total number, and in certain areas they even prevail significantly. Most of the population Paraguay of Indian origin, many Indians live in Colombia. In Argentina, Uruguay, Chile Indians were almost completely exterminated in the first period of colonization, and now there are very few them there. The Indian population of Brazil is also steadily reduced.

In the inner districts of Brazil, there are still remnants of the tribes of the language family "same". By the time of the arrival of Europeans on the mainland, they inhabited the eastern and southern parts of Brazil, but were pushed by colonialists in the forest and swamps. This people are still at the level of development corresponding to the primitive communal system, and is distinguished by a stray lifestyle.

At a very low stage of development, the residents of the extreme south of South America (fiery land) were in the arrival of Europeans. They defended themselves from the cold with animal skins, weapons were made of bone and stone, the food was extracted by hunting on Guanaco and maritime fishing. Firemensels have undergone severe physical extermination in the XIX century, now there are very few of them.

At a higher level of development, there were tribes inhabiting the central and northern parts of the mainland in the Orinoco and Amazon pools (the peoples of the Tupi-Guarani language families, Aravak, Caribbean). They are now engaged in agriculture, cultivating maniacs, corn, cotton. Hunt, applying onions and fighter tubes, and also use instantly active vegetable poison curarm.

Before the coming of Europeans, the main occupation of the tribes living in the territory of the Argentine Pampa and Patagonia was hunting. The Spaniards were taken to the mainland of horses, which were subsequently wild. The Indians learned to tame horses and began to use them for hunting Guanaco. The rapid development of capitalism in Europe was accompanied by the ruthless extermination of the population of colonial lands. In Argentina, in particular, the Spaniards were pushed by the Spaniards to the extreme south of Patagonia, on land, unsuitable for grain farms. Currently, in Pampa, the indigenous population is almost completely absent. Only small groups of indians working in large agricultural farms have been preserved.

The highest socio-economic and cultural development to the coming of Europeans reached the tribes that inhabited the elevated and the Andeady and Ecuador, where one of the oldest centers of irrigated agriculture is located.

Indian tribe, Kechua's Language family, inhabited in the XI-XIII centuries. On the territory of modern Peru, united the disparate small peoples of the Andes and formed a strong state, TauantinSuyu (XV century). The leaders were called "Inca". Hence the name of the entire people. Inci subordinate to themselves the nations of the Andes up to the modern territory of Chile, also spread their influence on more southern regions, where an independent, but close to Inca culture of sedentary farmers of Araucanov (Mapuche) arose.

The irrigated agriculture was the main occupation of the Inca, and they cultivated up to 40 species of cultivated plants, placing fields with terraces on the slopes of the mountains and summing the water of rock streams. Inci tamed wild lamas using them as pack animals, and diluted with homemade lamas, from which milk, meat, wool were obtained. Incasions are also famous for the ability to build mountain roads and bridges from Lian. They knew many crafts: pottery, weaving, processing of gold and copper, etc. From gold, they made decorations and objects of religious cult. In the state of Inca, private land ownership was combined with collective, at the head of the state stood a supreme leader with unlimited power. From the conquered tribes, the Inca was charged by Podachi. Incas are the creators of one of the oldest civilizations in South America. Some monuments of their cultures have been preserved until now: the ancient paths, the remains of architectural structures and irrigation systems.

Separate peoples that are part of the Inca State, still inhabit the desert high plateaus of the Andes. They are primitive to handle land, cultivating potatoes, movies and some other plants.

The most numerous modern Indian people - Kechua - inhabit mountainous areas of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile and Argentina. On the shores of Lake Titicaca live Aimara - one of the most high mountain peoples of the world.

The basis of the indigenous population of Chile was a group of strong agricultural tribes, united under the general name of Araucanov. They rendered a long resistance to the Spaniards, and only in the XVIII century. Part of them under the onslaught of colonialists moved to Pamppa. Now Araucans (Mapuche) live in the southern half of Chile, just some of them in Argentine Pampa.

In the north of the Andes, on the territory of modern Colombia, the cultural state of the peoples of Chibric Music has developed to the arrival of Spanish conquerors. Now small tribes are the descendants of Chibchi, who have surrelligerers of a tribal building, live in Colombia and on the Panama Carce.

The first settlers from Europe, who came to America without families, entered marriages with Indian. As a result, a mixed, marginal, population was formed. The process of mertication continued and later.

Currently, "clean" representatives of the European-like race are almost completely absent on the mainland. The exception is only the later immigrants. Most of the so-called "white" contains in one degree or another admixture of Indian (or Negro) blood. This mixed population (methuses, cholo) prevails in almost all South American countries.

A significant part of the population, especially in the ingredical areas (in Brazil, Guiana, Suriname, Guyana), make up blacks - descendants of slaves imported into South America at the beginning of colonization, when it was needed numerous and cheap labor used on plantations. Negros partially mixed with the White and Indian population. As a result, mixed types were created: in the first case - Mulati, in the second - sambo.

Falling from exploitation, negros slaves fled from their owners in tropical forests. Their descendants, some of which were mixed with the Indians, in some areas there are still a primitive forest lifestyle.

Prior to the independence of the South American republics, i.e. Until the first half of the XIX century, immigration to South America from other countries was prohibited. But afterwards the government of newly formed republics interested in the economic development of their states, the development of empty lands, opened access to immigrants from different countries of Europe and Asia. Especially many citizens arrived from Italy, Germany, Balkan countries, partly from Russia, China and Japan. Migrants of a later period are usually held separately, while maintaining their tongue, customs, culture and religion. In some republics (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay) they form significant groups of the population.

Features of the history of South America and, as a result, a large non-uniformity in the distribution of modern population and relatively small its average density led to a significant preservation of natural conditions compared to other continents. Large spaces of amazon lowland, the central part of the Guiangian Highlands (Massif Roraima), the southwestern part of the Andes and the Pacific coast remained unavailable for a long time. Separate stray tribes in Amazonian forests, almost not in contact with the rest of the population, not so much affected the nature, how many themselves depended on it. However, such districts are becoming less and less. Mining mineral mining, gaskets of communication, in particular the construction of a transaman highway, the development of new lands leaves in South America and fewer spaces not affected by the human activity.

Oil production in the most thick of rainforest of Amazonia or Iron and other ores within the Gwian and Brazilian Nagrai demanded the construction of transport routes in recently still deaf and inaccessible areas. This, in turn, led to the growth of the population, extermination of forests, expanding arable and pasture lands. As a result of the attack on nature with the use of the latest technology, environmental equilibrium is often disturbed, easily angrin natural complexes are destroyed.

The development and significant transformations began primarily from the plain of the la fee, the coastal parts of the Brazilian Highlands, the Far North of the Necklish. Areas, mastered before the start of European colonization, are in the depths of the Andes Bolivia, Peru and other countries. On the territory of the oldest Indian civilizations, the centuries-old activity of a person imposed its imprint on the deserted plateales and the slopes of the mountains at a height of 3-4.5 thousand m above sea level.

Now the population of South America is almost 320 million people, and 78% falls on the share of urban. The growth of major cities is the cause of serious environmental problems characteristic of urbanized territories around the world. This is a disadvantage and low quality drinking water, air pollution, accumulation of solid waste, etc.

Anthropogenic pressure on nature is a global, comprehensive process.

As a result of the demographic explosion, the development of industry, energy and transport, intensive pollution of the natural environment and the depletion of natural resources, a person actively intervened in the processes of substances in nature, established for millions of years. Humanity quite painfully felt the powerful responses of the natural environment, the biosphere, whose consequences for people became an increase in morbidity and mortality, deterioration of habitat, food quality, water and recreation areas, economic difficulties.

It happens because nature is not able for some 100-150 years of active anthropogenic effects, and this is only a moment in planetary processes, to balance this effect, to make a stable nature to natural processes, eliminate the intensity at the introduction and output of substances and energy in the process The functioning of the planetary ecosystem is the biosphere.

These problems in modern society became customary to be called environmental issues, and in a number of regions began to talk about the environmental crisis and environmental catastrophes.

In principle, a person affects the biosphere in four main areas.

1. By changeing the structure of the earth's surface (decay of steppes, cutting down forests, amelioration, creation of artificial lakes and seas, regulation of the flow of rivers in the sea, etc.). 2. Changing the composition of the biosphere, the cycle and balance of its substances (the clarification of the fossils, the creation of dumps, the release of various substances into the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the surface of the lithosphere, the change in moisture rotation, etc.).
3. By changing the energy, in particular, the thermal balance of individual areas of the globe and the entire planet as a whole. 4. The changes made to the entire totality of living organisms by extermination or reduction of the number of certain types, the creation of new forms of animals and plants, move them to new habitats.

Influenced by human activity there were large negative changes in the main natural complexes and ecosystems of Russia. The largest marine and freshwater reservoirs of Russia and the CIS, the Russian north, the main industrial zones and the zones of large cities were especially injured. A special place is covered by the zone of the world in the world of Chernobyl ecological catastrophe.

Urbanization.

Urbanization - from Lat. The words "Urbanus" - urban is the process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society.

Nature urbanization is the transformation of natural landscapes into artificial under the influence of urban development. Accompanied by a massive transformation of natural ecosystems, the mass accumulation of various waste in the environment.

In the conditions of large cities, the effect on the human natural component is weakened, and anthropogenic factors are sharply strengthened.

Urbanization is such

Motor transport, commercial enterprises, utility household, pollute the environment with a variety of chemicals harmful to humans and elements, solid, liquid, gaseous and dust waste, which accumulate in the air of cities, in its reservoirs, in soil and dwellings. Electromagnetic and noise impacts also contribute.

As a result, the urban population suffers from various diseases, including genetic, sick children are born, mortality is growing.

An anthropogenic object is an object created by a person to ensure its social needs and not possessing the properties of natural objects.

Industrialization, intensification of agriculture, the change in agriculture system and significant demographic growth led to the need for such a direction of socio-economic development, which would be combined with harmonious environmental management and the preservation of the environment.

Society and the state, aware of the importance of the problem of rational nature management, identified policies for the protection of nature and preservation among the main priorities.

Today, the territory of Tajikistan accounts for about 50% of the area of \u200b\u200bglaciation of all Central Asia or 8500 square meters. km. The Pamir is located one of the largest valley glaciers of the glovenant - the Fedchenko glacier is about 77 km and 907 square meters. km. River stock Tajikistan is 48.7% annually renewable water resources of the Aral Sea basin.

Changes in the scale of the Aral Sea over the past 30 years:

An important factor in the system of environmental management is the raw materials of Tajikistan - mineral and thermal waters, coal, precious and rare metals, hydropower resources, etc.

The Grand Conimansur deposit located in the north of Tajikistan, which has silver reserves over 70000 tons - one of the largest in the world. According to the revealed reserves, antimony Tajikistan is not equal in the CIS. Specific hydropower reserves per capita - 87.8 thousand kW / h per year - put forward Tajikistan on the 2nd place, and the specific reserves per unit of territory - 3.62 million kW / h per 1 square meter. km per year - on the 1st place in the world.

Hydropower resources

The contribution of Tajikistan to the regional Central Asian piggy bank is very significant. The location of Tajikistan in the center of Central Asia makes the link for neighboring countries: Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, China with the revival of the Great Flip Route.

Involving Tajikistan in industrial development and economic cooperation, it is necessary to take into account the factors that have a negative impact on nature and the environment. The anthropogenic effect is aggravated by the fact that the nature of the mountains is especially sensitive to the effects on it and does not possess in a number of cases of self-healing. The thoughtless invasion of Tajikistan mountains leads to the fact that in some cases natural complexes do not cope with industrial aggression and nature degrades, moving beyond the face of self-reproduction and self-healing. The scientist urges to take care of nature, so that state structures with great rights and broad authority stood on its guard.

The attitude of people to the nature of the mountain regions of Tajikistan, how to speak is not bitter, but still - has not changed. An example can be an increase in the volume of wastewater discharge without purification in the river, contamination of water bodies, or non-working state of 30% of the water supply systems of Tajikistan, which are shown in the monograph.

Tajikistan has more powerful recreational resources compared to most post-Soviet countries. Abundance of sunlight, almost complete absence of natural precipitation in summer, beautiful mountain landscapes, ubiquitous presence of water bodies (rivers, lakes, ponds, etc.), numerous and widespread of thermal and mineral waters, the softness of the nature of the mountain tajiks, their sincere delight and Hospitality make the mountain regions of Tajikistan by a paradise site for everyone who comes here for recreation and quenching in mountainous areas.

The government of the republic has developed and adopted by more than 30 subtitle acts regulating the mechanisms of execution of laws. Some of them are about responsibility for violations of water legislation "," on liability for damage to illegal mining and destruction of animal objects "," on the organization of continuous environmental education and education of the population "and a series of similar to them. Responsibility for their implementation and execution, as well as controls are assigned to all branches of power.

A series of regulatory documents regulates the procedure for the data of environmental management and the conditions for the execution of economic mechanisms to stimulate environmental management. This includes both the norms of the volume of permissible impacts on the natural environment and the procedure for compensation for the exceeding the volume of harmful discharges, emissions and the formation of waste. At the same time, the procedure for recovering the means of compensation for damages caused by the state violation of environmental legislation was established.

In the republic there is a fairly developed network of reserves, monuments of nature and history that play a dominant role in preserving landscapes, habitats and types. This also includes hunting grounds, where animal shootings are strictly adjusted, the numberality and recovery of populations is calculated. In addition, there are protected groups of forests and water bodies, where human intervention is limited.

In order to prevent the negative effects of anthropogenic activities, environmental impact assessment and environmental impact assessment is carried out in accordance with the legislation. Also, the ecological certification of industrial enterprises allows to effectively monitor the environmental activities and compliance with environmental legislation. Also in the republic, educational work is quite widely carried out, professional environmentalists, geographers, biologists and specialists in nature conservation are being prepared, in schools and universities, objects under nature and ecology are being conducted, local shares, trainings, summer educational camps are being implemented.

Below is a presentation on the topic: "Anthropogenic impact on nature. Using natural resources "

The problem of anthropogenic impact on nature, the exhaustion of resources should be disturbed by everyone, since each is responsible for the balance, which is broken every day. In each of us, there must be the first of all, pain for nature, water and land of the Mountains of Tajikistan, which are fed, treated and accept all of us from birth to the last day of our life.

"This publication / program has been prepared with the support of the European Union. The content of this publication is the subject of the responsibility of Farrum Fayzulloeva and does not reflect the view of the European Union. "

In South America, there are many environmental problems caused by technical progress and the development of the economy. Forests are destroyed and reservoirs are contaminated, the biodiversity is reduced and the soil is depleted, the atmosphere is contaminated and the ranges of wildlife are reduced. All this can later lead to an ecological catastrophe.
The cities of South American countries have formed the following characteristics:

  • the problem of antisanitarian;
  • water pollution;
  • the problem of debris of garbage and solid household waste;
  • air pollution;
  • the problem of energy resources, etc.

The problem of deforestation of forests

A significant part of the mainland is covered with tropical forests that are light planets. Trees are constantly born not only for the sale of wood, but also to create agricultural land and pastures. All this leads to a change in the forest ecosystem, the destruction of certain types of flora and fauna migrations. To preserve the forest, many countries at the legislative level regulate lumberjournal activities. There are whole zones, where it is prohibited, forest arrays are restored and new trees are landing.

Problems of hydrosphere

In the coastal areas of the seas and oceans there are many problems:

  • excessive catch of fish;
  • water pollution with garbage, petroleum products and chemicals;
  • housing and communal and industrial effluents.

All these waste negatively affect the condition of water bodies, on flora and fauna.

In addition, many rivers flow under the mainland, including the world's largest river - Amazon. The rivers of South America also suffer from human activity. Many species of fish and animals disappear in the waters. Also greatly complicated the life of local tribes, which lived on the banks of the Millenniums Rivers, they are forced to look for new habitats. Dams and various structures led to changes in river modes and water pollution.

Pollution of the biosphere

The source of air pollution is greenhouse gases that highlight vehicles and industrial enterprises:

  • mines and deposits;
  • enterprises of the chemical industry;
  • oil refineries;
  • energy objects;
  • metallurgical plants.

Soil pollution promotes agriculture, which uses pesticides, chemical and mineral fertilizers. It also depletes the soil, which leads to the degradation of the soil. There is a destruction of land resources.

§one. Classification of anthropogenic influences

Anthropogenic influences include all the oppressing nature of the impact, created by the technique or directly by a person. They can be combined into the following groups:

1) Pollution, i.e. introduction on Wednesday uncharacteristic physical, chemical and other elements or an artificial increase in the existing natural level of these elements;

2) technical transformations and destruction of natural systems and landscapes in the process of extracting natural resources, construction, etc.;

3) seizure natural resources - water, air, minerals, organic fuel, etc.;

4) global climatic impacts;

5) violation of the aesthetic value of landscapes, i.e. Changes in natural forms unfavorable for visual perception.

Some of the most significant negative impacts on nature are pollutionwhich are divided depending on the type, source, consequences, control measures, etc. The sources of anthropogenic pollution are industrial and agricultural enterprises, energy facilities, transport. A lot of share in total balance is made by household pollution.

Anthropogenic pollution may have a local, regional and global character. They are divided into the following types:

· Biological,

· Mechanical,

· Chemical,

· Physical,

· Physico-chemical.

Biological, as well as microbiological Pollution occurs when biological waste into the environment is admitted or as a result of rapid reproduction of microorganisms on anthropogenic substrates.

Mechanicalpollution is associated with substances that do not apply to organisms and medium of physical and chemical action. It is characteristic of the production of building materials, construction, repair and reconstruction of buildings and structures: these are waste of stone, reinforced concrete production, brick, etc. The cement industry, for example, is in the first place to emissions into the atmosphere of solid pollutants (dust), followed by enterprises for the production of silicate bricks, lime plants and plants of porous aggregates.

Chemicalpollution may be caused by the introduction of any new chemical compounds or an increase in the concentrations of those present. Many of the chemicals are active and can interact with molecules of substances inside living organisms or actively oxidized in air, becoming poisonous to them. The following groups of chemical pollution are distinguished:

1) aqueous solutions and sludge with sour, alkaline and neutral reaction;

2) non-aqueous solutions and sludge (organic solvents, resins, oils, fats);

3) solid contamination (chemically active dust);

4) gaseous pollution (pairs, exhaust gases);

5) Specific - especially toxic (asbestos, mercury, arsenic, lead, phenol-containing pollution).

According to the results of international studies, which were conducted under the auspices of the UN, the list of the most important substances polluting the environment were drawn up. It includes:

§ Sulfur trioxide (sulfur anhydride) SO 3;

§ Weighted particles;

§ carbon oxides CO and CO 2

§ Nitrogen oxides NO x;

§ Photochemical oxidizers (ozone o 3, hydrogen peroxide H 2 O 2, hydroxyl radicals, peroxyacylntitrates Pan and aldehyda);

§ mercury Hg;

§ Lead PB;

§ cadmium CD;

§ chlorinated organic compounds;

§ toxins of fungal origin;

§ nitrates, more often in the form of Nano 3;

§ ammonia NH 3;

§ separate microbial pollutants;

§ Radioactive pollution.

By the ability to continue under the external influence, chemical pollution is divided into:

a) persistent and

b) Destroyed chemical or biological processes.

TO physicalpollution:

1) thermal, arising due to temperature increase due to heat loss in industry, residential buildings, in heating mains, etc.;

2) noise as a consequence of increased noise of enterprises, transport, etc.;

3) light, arising due to unreasonably high illumination created by artificial light sources;

4) electromagnetic from radio, television, industrial installations, power lines;

5) radioactive.

Pollution from various sources entered the atmosphere, water bodies, a lithosphere, and then begin to migrate in different directions. From the habitats of a separate biotic community, they are transferred to all components of biocenosis - plants, microorganisms, animals. Directions and forms of pollution migrations may be as follows (Table 2):

table 2

Forms of pollution migrations between natural environments

Direction of migration Molds migration
Atmosphere - Atmosphere Atmosphere - Hydrosphere Atmosphere - SURFACE SURFACE - BYOT HYSTROFFER - Atmosphere Hydruthera - hydrosphere hydrosphere - Sushi surface, bottom of rivers, Lakes Hydrosphere - Biot Sushi surface - Hydrosphere Sushi surface - Sushi surface Sushi surface - atmosphere Sushi surface - Biota Biota - atmosphere Atmosphere Biota - Biot Hydrospheres - Biot Sushi Surface - BIOT Moting in the atmosphere Deposition (leaching) on \u200b\u200bthe water surface precipitation (leaching) on \u200b\u200bthe sushi surface precipitation on the surface of plants (extra-green arrival) evaporation from water (petroleum products, mercury compounds) Transferring water transition from water to soil, filtering, self-cleaning of water, deposition pollution transition from surface waters to ground and water ecosystems, admission to organisms with drinking water washing with precipitation, temporary watercourses, with snowmigration migration in the soil, glaciers, snow covering and transfer to air masses root revenues of pollution in the vegetation of evaporation hitting water after death Organisms hit in the soil after the death of organisms migration on food chains

Construction production is a powerful gun destruction of natural systems and landscapes. The construction of industrial and civil facilities leads to the rejection of large areas of fertile land, reduce the living space of all the inhabitants of ecosystems, a serious change in the geological environment. Table 3 illustrates the results of the construction of the construction of the geological structure of the territories.

Table 3.

Changing the geological situation at construction facilities

Disorders of the natural environment accompanied by mining and recycling of minerals. This is expressed in the following.

1. The creation of significant quarries and embankments leads to the formation of man-made landscape, reduce land resources, earth surface deformation, depletion and destruction of soil.

2. Drainage of deposits, water intake for the technical needs of mining enterprises, the reset of mine and wastewater violates the hydrological regime of the water basin, the reserves of underground and surface waters are depleted, deteriorate their quality.

3. Drilling, explosion, loading of the mountain mass is accompanied by a deterioration in the quality of atmospheric air.

4. The above processes, as well as production noise, contribute to the deterioration of the conditions of vital and the reduction in the number and species composition of plants and animals, a decrease in crop yields.

5. Mountain production, deposition of deposits, extraction of minerals, the disposal of solid and liquid waste leads to a change in the natural stress-strain state of the massif of rocks, flooding and the edgement of deposits, contamination of subsoil.

Now in almost every city, violated territories appear and develop, i.e. territory with threshold (supercritical) change in any characteristic of engineering and geological conditions. Any such change limits the specific functional use of the territory and requires the implementation of recultivation, i.e. A complex of work aimed at restoring the biological and economic value of disturbed lands.

One of the main reasons exhausting natural resources is the wastefulness of people. Thus, according to certain experts, the explored reserves of minerals are depleted completely after 60-70 years. Even faster, famous oil and gas fields can be exhausted.

At the same time, only 1/3 of consumed commodities consumed on the production of industrial products, and 2/3 is lost in the form of by-products and waste polluting the natural environment (Fig. 9).

Throughout the history of human society, about 20 billion tons of ferrous metals was paid, and in facilities, cars, on transport, etc. They are implemented only 6 billion tons. The rest is scattered in the environment. Currently, more than 25% of the annual iron products are scattered, and some other substances are even more. For example, the dispersion of mercury and lead reaches 80 - 90% of their annual production.

Natural submarines

Extracted left

Losses

Recycling partial refund


Partial return

Products


Failure, wear, corrosion

Scrap environmental pollution


Fig.9. Scheme of resource cycle

On the verge of disorders there is a balance of oxygen on the planet: with the existing rates of the destruction of forests, photosynthetic plants will soon be unable to replenish it to the needs of industry, transport, energy, etc.

Global climatic changescaused by human activity is primarily characterized by a global increase in temperature. Specialists believe that in the next decade, the heating of the earth's atmosphere may increase to a dangerous feature: in the tropics, an increase in temperature is predicted by 1-2 ° C, and near the poles by 6-8 0 C.

Due to the melting of polar ice, the level of the world's ocean will noticeably increase, which will lead to the flooding of huge populated areas and agricultural space. We are predicted with the associated mass epidemic, especially in South America, India, the countries of the Mediterranean. Everywhere will increase the number of oncological diseases. The power of tropical cyclones, hurricanes, tornado will significantly increase.

The root cause of all this - greenhouse effectThe increasing concentration in the stratosphere at an altitude of 15-50 km of gases, which are usually not present there: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides, chlorofluorocarbons. The layer of these gases plays the role of an optical filter, passing the sun's rays and delaying thermal radiation reflected from the earth surface. This causes a rise in temperature in the surface space, as under the roof of the greenhouse. And the intensity of this process is growing: only over the past 30 years, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air increased by 8%, and in the period from 2030 to 2070, it is expected to doubt its content in the atmosphere compared to the pre-industrial level.

Thus, the global increase in temperature in the coming decades and associated adverse phenomena of doubts do not cause. With the current level of the development of civilization, you can only slow down this process in one way or another. Thus, the all-time savings of fuel and energy resources directly contributes to slowing the rate of atmospheric heating. Further steps in this direction are the transition to resource-saving technologies and devices, new construction projects.

According to some estimates, significant warming has already been detained for 20 years due to the almost complete cessation of the production and use of chlorofluorocarbons in industrialized countries.

At the same time, there are a number of natural factors that restrain the warming of climate on Earth, for example, stratospheric aerosol layerforming thanks to volcanic eruptions. It is located at an altitude of 20-25 km and consists mainly of sulfuric acid droplets with an average of 0.3 μm. It also meets particles of salts, metals, other substances.

Particles of the aerosol layer reflect the solar radiation back into space, which leads to some decrease in temperature in the surface layer. Despite the fact that the particles in the stratosphere are approximately 100 times less than in the lower layer of the atmosphere - the troposphere - they provide a more noticeable climatic effect. This is due to the fact that the stratospheric aerosol mainly lowers the air temperature, while the tropospheric can decrease and increase it. In addition, each particle in the stratosphere exists for a long time - up to 2 years, while the lifetime of tropospheric particles does not exceed 10 days: they are quickly washed with rains and fall on the ground.

Violation of the aesthetic value of landscapes It is characteristic of construction processes: the construction of non-essential natural formations of buildings and structures produces a negative impression, worsens the historically established type of landscapes.

All technological impacts lead to a deterioration in high-quality indicators of the environment, which are distinguished by conservatism, since evolution has been developed for millions of years.

To assess the activity of anthropogenic impact on the nature of the Kirov region, an integral anthropogenic load was established for each district, obtained on the basis of environmental impact assessments of three types of pollution sources:

§ local (household and industrial waste);

§ territorial (agriculture and forest exploitation);

§ locally territorial (transport).

It was established that to areas with the highest ecological tensions include: Kirov, District and Kirovo-Chepetsk, District and G. Vyatsky Polyana, District and Kotelnich, district and Slobodskaya.

The answer was left the guest

1. The equatorial forest area is in South America, the giant Amazonian lowland areas adjacent to the foot of the Eastern Andes, the northern part of the Pacific coast in the field of equatorial climatic belt. These forests call the Selvas, which translated from Portuguese means "forests". A. Humboldt suggested calling them with hyilets (from Greek. "Gilaion" - Forest).

2. Zones of Savannan, steady and shrubs are located mainly in the subequatorial and partially in tropical climatic belts. Savannes are occupied by the Orinoal lowland, where they are called Llanos, as well as the internal areas of the Gwianky and Brazilian Nagori (Campos).

3. The zone of subtropical steppes, which are called here, is located south of the savannah tropical belt. The soils in Pamppa are reddish-black, are formed as a result of the overloading of dense vegetation from turf cereals - Pampasov grass, Kickl, Matlik, and others. These soils have a significant humus horizon (up to 40 cm) and very fertile. For natural sections of Pampa, fast running animals are typical - Pampas deer, Pampas Cat, Lama. On the banks of the rivers and lakes a lot of rodents - Nutria, Viskach. Currently, natural landscapes in Pamppa are not preserved: comfortable lands of plague (wheat fields, corn), dry steppes are divided into huge cattle.

4. The semi-desert zone of a moderate belt prevails in the territory of the South - the narrowed part of the mainland, in Patagonia. Patagonia is in the "rain shadow" of the Andes. In the conditions of a dry continental climate on serous and gray-brown soils (salted seats) dismissed vegetative cover. It is formed by denfalline cereals (turbine, kid, oatmeal) and shrubs forming spiny pillows (low cacti, ephedra, verbena). Among the endemic representatives of the animal world of Patagonia should be celebrated Skuns, Magellan's dog (like a fox), Ostrich Darwin (South Nonda). There are a pampas cat and armadios, small rodents (Tuko-Tuco, Mara, etc.).

5. Andes are characterized by high-rise landscapes. The Andes lying on different latitudes are distinguished by the number and composition of altitude belts. The most complete spectrum of high-rise belt is presented in the field of equator.

6. Zone of wide and coniferous forests (this is in the south of Chile)

Along the Tikhokean coast, there is a special change of meridional natural zones: in tropical latitudes, the desert zone and semi-desert tropical belts are formed (the scrap formation is formed in the attack, for which there are characteristic and tuberous ephemeroids); In the subtropical belt between 32-38 ° sh. There is a zone of dry tone Mediterranean forests and shrubs. South 38 ° sh. In the subtropical belt - the zone of constantly wet evergreen forests (the hemigil zone), which extends to the south and at the limits of a moderate belt to 46 ° YU. sh. Consist of hemigilee from evergreen southern beeches, Chilean araucaria, "Chilean cypresses" and others. Wood breeds.

"Brazil" - Lenizen is also a resident of Brazil. From the Liverpool Harbor, always on Thursdays, the vessels go swimming for distant aircrapers. The battleship lives in Norah. And in the case of danger, the armadiole can be curled into the ball as hedgehog. They speak Brazil in Portuguese. The sloth is long and thin paws with 3 fingers with very long claws.

"Natural Zones of South America" \u200b\u200b- relief. Changing the nature of the mainland under the influence of man. You probably have already guessed. True, the unique nature of South America on the verge of gradual destruction. Why we say so. Hundreds of species are made to the Red Book. Soil. Climate. Crocodile living in South America. 11, woodcutton. 12.

"South America Lessons" - Useful Links to the Internet. The objectives of the lesson: the development of methods of algorithmic and logical thinking. Natural wealth (announcer, text, card, video). Cultuous textbook. Contents Directory Tests Practice Internet. The content of the multimedia tutorial. Animal world of South America -10 min. Conclusions by lesson.

"Geography 7 class South America" \u200b\u200b- table. Location lesson: South America. GP Y. America. General features and differences in GP. Theme lesson. The introductory word of the teacher ............ South America Grade 7. Working with a table. Researchers and travelers.

"Mainland South America" \u200b\u200b- on the shores of Lake Maracaybo mining oil. 11. Task 3: "Believe - do not believe?". The sign "+" put if true, and "-", if the approval is not true. Summarizing lesson

human impact

1. The resettlement of humanity in the land

2. Anthropogenic impact on the nature of Africa

3. Anthropogenic impact on the nature of Eurasia

4. Anthropogenic impact on the nature of North America

5. Anthropogenic impact on the nature of South America

6. Anthropogenic impact on the nature of Australia and Oceania

* * *

1. Establishment of mankind on earth

Africa consider the most likely pranodina Modern man.

In favor of this situation, many features of the nature of the continent speak. African man-like monkeys - especially chimpanzees - have the greatest number of biological signs common with modern person compared to other anthropoids. Africa also found fossil remains of several forms of human monkeys of the family pongid (Pongidae), similar to modern man-like monkeys. In addition, fossil forms of anthropidoids - Australopitets were found, usually included in the hominid family.

Remains australopitekov Detected in the villafran sediments of South and East Africa, that is, in those strata that most researchers relate to the Quaternary period (Eopleestocene). In the east, the mainland, together with the bones of Australopiteks, were found stones with traces of coarse artificial sponge.

Many anthropologists consider Australopites as the stage of the evolution of a person preceding the emergence of the most ancient people. However, the discovery of R. Liki in 1960. Olduva location has made significant changes in solving this problem. In the natural section of the Olduva Gorge, located in the south-east of the Serengeti Plateau, near the famous Crater Ngorongoro (Northern Tanzania), the remains of primates close to Australopithek were found in the thicker of volcanic rocks of the Villafrank age. They got a name zindjanthropov. Below and above the Zindjantrophs were found skeletal remains of the congregation, or Homo Habilis (skillful man). Together with the congregation, primitive stone products were found - rudely abundant pebbles. In the overlay layers of Olduva location found the remains of African archantropov, and on the same level with them - Australopiteks. The relative position of the remains of the Vinjanthrope and Zindjanthropov (Australopitheeks) gives reason to assume that Australopita, previously considered direct ancestors of the most ancient people, in fact, formed an unproperential branch of the hominid that existed for a long time between the Villafranc and the middle of the Pleistocene. This branch is over still.

Summary. The table shows the history of the transformation of biodiversity and natural landscapes in the course of the development of man's economic activity, the two aspects of the earliest and less well-known stages are described in more detail. The proof of the early beginnings of the anthropocene - the period, when most of the natural biomes in one degree or another are transformed by a person, representing "violations at different stages of the ingrity", and the influence of human activity globally.

Sequential transformation of biodiversity and natural landscapes in the course of the historical development of human economic activities and environmental responses of society

BUT . Periodization, dates B. . Impact on various biota components

I.. The period of action blindly, up to the 1860-1880s.
1 . Pleistocene swinds Extermination of megafauna - the edible species for open herbaceous biomes ( 1 ). It was especially effective, for "imposed" to climate change, - -.
2 . Neolithic revolution, rapid growth in population density associated with improving agriculture but. Deforestation of the significant territories of the "fertile crescent" adjacent to the territory of the Balkans and North Africa, as well as East Asia and Africa (4, 7 )b.. "Loom" of the natural mechanism of climate cyclicity, ensuring the transition from warm-dry to cool-wet periods and back, launching anthropogenic climate change. The latter first developed slowly: an increase in greenhouse gas emissions was maintained mainly by agriculture, the spread of which on the planet destroyed the territory of the wildlife and "released" into the atmosphere of CO 2, earlier "stored" in carbon soil, peat, Mortmasse, etc. with the development of industry. Accelerated, and became quite noticeable from the mid-19th century (that is, the development of climate change went exponentially). ( 8 )
3 . Transition from forest type of settlement to rural. In the first case, the pieces of arable land, separated from the forest with the villages inside, were small in size and separated by large forest arrays, it was protected from erosion, provided a favorable microclimate and, most importantly, the stability of the crops in the conditions of alternation of "good" and "bad" years. In the second, the population growth together with the intensification of agriculture leads to the reduction of dividing forests, several villages with arable land are combined into a solid massif of agricultural land with a significantly larger area, surrounded by forests only at an external perimeter. but. Development instability of traditional s / xWhen the agricultural load on the landscape (both arable wedge and surrounding forests and meadows) will exceed some limit. Erosion develops, leading to the loss of a fertile layer, climatically unfavorable years (drought, hail, shocking due to heavy rains) begin to lead to indulgent and hunger, with weak development - to a decrease in yield. ( 7, 9 ). It is forcing the peasants or to reduce the forest in the new territory, or proceed to triple, crop rotations, regular fertilizers and other forms of intensification of C / x. The situation is exacerbated by an uncontrolled fatal in the forest (while the load on pastures is controlled). ( 9 , 7 ).b.. Destruction Highly friendly structure of domestic forests of moderate zone (broad and boreal). Extermination of key species of these communities - tours, bison, beavers; Selection of meadows and marsh arrays as separate types of landscape. The gradual transformation of polydominant diversified trees into mono-separated simultaneous as the development of the gravy-fire and overlap agriculture, an increasing% of the forests of each territory passed through arable land. Similar to, through the intensification of the effects of C / x on a highly unauthorized continuum of forest-abrasive habitats, such natural zones are formed as a steppe and tundra ( 1,2, 4, 7 ).
4. "Urban Revolution". The development of the network of cities that exchanger developed craft (and further industries) by far trade in the Western and Eastern parts of Okumen, in need of increased productivity of C / x in the zone of the city's influence, significantly increased the agricultural load on the landscape, especially in areas specializing in grain production to the world market. In Europe, this is the area of \u200b\u200b"second edition" east of Elba, hereinafter - Argentina, Australia, Canada, to a lesser extent of the United States. but. An increase in all types of environmental damage associated with the increased H / y burden on the natural landscape while maintaining the traditional nature of the latter. In the desire to increase profits from the production of grain, the manufacturer saves on regenerative investments, incl. Reduces the area of \u200b\u200bthe meadows necessary for the proximation of livestock, which ultimately beats over the grain production. With a certain periodicity, it leads to mass affords and hunger, which reduces the population, especially in climatically unfavorable years (so-called " maltusian trap", Related to the fact that the city economy of the Middle Ages already presents increased demands on the productivity of C / X, but is not yet able to imagine excessive rural population). An excess of land resources arises, restoring the productivity of the economy, and everything begins again. Since each "cycle" part of the soil fertility and land is lost, in the long term there is a decrease in the average level of yield and a reduction in arable wedge ( 7, 9 ).b.. The formation of the territories of persistent pollution of water, air and soil in large urban centers, especially in the areas of the concentration of crafts, and then industry ( 10 ).
5 . "Great Disassembling": the establishment of a rural type of resettlement at considerable territories, pushing the forest type of resettlement to the colonized periphery of the "civilized world". The ubiquitous transition to three-fold and then to multipoly crop rotations, which requires the observance of the optimal ratio of meadows and Pashny, without which the peasant is deprived of the cattle and the possibility of making fertilizers for arable land. Since short-term benefits, especially in the case of grain production, etc. Food products (flax, hemp) pushing landowners to reduce meadow to the detriment of arable land, which in the overwhelming majority of cases leads to loss of sustainable operation of this territory. The process is described by the crisis model in the system of "Nature-Society" D.I. Luri: -. but. The periodically arising local crisis of traditional C / X, the development of which is described by the model D.I.Luri. In crisis years, large arable arrays accelerately erod, reducing the livestock of cattle due to the lack of feed reduces the application of fertilizers, worsens the possibilities of soil processing, etc. As a result, there is a monthly death, hunger, and considerable extinction of the population, the surviving part of which strengthens the colonization of the outskirts and, respectively , mixing forests, after which the transition from p.4 to claim 5 is already there. The exit from this crisis in all countries was committed by urbanization, industrialization and industrial revolution: as capitalism penetrations into agriculture, it begins to serve the city market, especially since the population of cities with the development of industry is growing rapidly. "Fruits" of the development of urban science and technology - machinery, chemical fertilizers, promising varieties, advanced agricultural engineering, soil cards, etc. - come to the village, significantly increasing yields and, most importantly, making crops resistant ( 7, 9 ).b.. The disarm or urbanization of more than 25% of the territory makes it impossible to habitat of the edible species that are "at the top" of the ecological pyramid: large types of ungulates, the impact of which regulates the parcel mosaic of vegetation, maintains its natural pattern, and large predators regulating the dynamics of the numerical numerous. It suffices to displace them, even without direct extermination, and the natural reproduction of the respective natural communities will be very violated ( 3, 8 ).

II. The period of protection of wildlife, until 1968-1972.
6A. . After the industrial revolution, in the framework of the capitalist development of the most advanced countries in Europe and North America, fast industrialization and urbanization, then echoing to a number of "half-readeries" (Russia, Japan, Turkey, Australia, India). but. In the zone of the influence of the respective urban centers - "Repetition of Pleistocenestone's reprisals" at a new level of influence intensity. The rapid deforestation of the territories, primarily poor forest, mass drainage of marshes and peat mining in the boreal forest area, reducing the abundance of fishing species of animals and birds by 2-3 orders in the countries of "half-readeries" to the level of impossibility of fishing - in developed countries. At the same time are formed by the so-called. Tunane rings background around large cities of developed countries. Defining and regulating consumer pressure, the latter for the first time in history turn into centers regulating the destruction of habitats and the operation of bioresources throughout the globe ( 2, 3, 4, 7, 9 ).b.. Fall on the order The number of ordinary bird species Both other vertebrates, due to the development of trade in wild species, as well as adverse changes in lace of habitats (in which, in addition to the information of the forests, a significant contribution is made by land recovery, intensification of agricultural use of meadows and other open landscapes, as well as the urbanization of the territory - the urbobic species are pushed On the periphery of the region about urban nuclei). In the same side, the construction of roads, plants, etc. industrial facilities on previously unfitting territories - landscape degrades, and biodiversity is reduced directly proportional to attendance of the corresponding arrays ( 2, 4, 6, 7, 9 ).
6b . Colonization and economic development of Siberia, the Far West of the United States, Australia and South America, later Africa. There are agricultural plants and mines, the products of which (grain, cattle, sisal, spices, tea, coffee, cocoa, indigo, opium, etc.) is supplied to the market of developed countries. The latter is serviced not only by the economists of the colonists from the countries of Europe, the number of which is constantly increasing, but also the economy of local residents - it is partially destroyed during colonization, and in a non-traping part is completely rebuilt for the production of "colonial goods"). but. Barbaric extermination of a relatively untouched fauna of colonized periphery - bison and Wearing pigeon in America, Outless Gharta and other seabirds in the mass nesting places where they are defenseless, Start of mass beating whales, sea cats and other marine beasts, rectaging fish stocks, first of all for the needs of the arms race. Mass extermination of beautiful birds, reptiles, etc. For fashionable whims, female jewelry, etc. Distribution of the most barbaric (and therefore profitable) ways of extermination of fish and game - arsons of reeds and dry grass, collection of eggs and chicks, catching latin birds, etc. For 50-70 years, the initial abundance of the game is eliminated, Among the types of environmental damage, a massive mart begins to prevail (with the destruction of the natural vegetation of open herbaceous biomes, as in Australia) and the reduction of forests ( 1, 2, 5, 7, 8 ).b.. « For wild animals there is no place"In open grassy biomes of the third world, the colonists exterminate local cooled species to free the place for livestock (100 years later, after gaining independence The same place will do local residents); What does not turn into a pasture, it opens, or mines appear in the respective territories like this Described by J. Dymond in Collapse for Montana State. Wild species lose access to waterproofs, at the same time, forests are reduced, accompanied by their fragmentation, while their last asylum is lost, and the forest for the entire depth is available for hunters from the villages ( 2, 3, 4, 5 ).
7 . The birth of a social movement for the protection of nature, in three versions: American, Central European (Germany, Switzerland, Austria-Hungary) and Russian-Soviet. but. The rapid destruction of forests, the custody of the fauna and the flora, the extreme level of pollution in cities, incompatible with a healthy lifestyle, even enough rich people, caused a pessimistic commentary to life regarding the role of a person on Earth, and transformations of the natural landscape, leaving the desert. The awareness of the danger in different ways occurred in the German practitioners of the forest and hunting economy, folk education figures, American philosophers-transcendentalists, Russian zoologists of the school K.F. Rulé and the soils of the school of Dokuchaev - creators of environmental traffic in their own countries. The first cultural and patriotic, second - ethical and aesthetic arguments, the third - considerations of the scientific value of the territories of wildlife and their importance for public progress. The beginning of taking under the protection of wildlife territories from patriotic, scientific, aesthetic and other considerations. Development of environmental education masses, attracting teachers, schoolchildren and students to protect nature. The first successes in the preservation of vulnerable species, the valuable sections of natural communities, attracting "useful" species of animals by biotechnical methods, a solid transition to the scientific leading of forest, fish and hunting, ensuring the sustainability of the operation of bioresources with an increase in the skills of commercial species and forest restoration ( 2, 3, 5, 6 )
8 . Issues of preserving the habitat of a person since the end of 19 century. Social hygiene puts the emergence of urban water supply systems, sewage, chlorination of water and other progressive activities, sharply reduced the incidence of cholera, dysentery, abdominal typhoid, etc. orally-fecal infections, which used to literally spacing citizens. The beginning of the mechanization and chemicalization of C / X (environmental damage, see 9 ) but. Gradual (by the 1920s) understanding of the need to preserve forest, meadow, etc. Natural sections, "captured" in the process of territorial growth of cities, so far from recreational and sanitary and hygienic considerations. In the USSR - the creation of from them the environmental infrastructure of the city in the form of "green wedges" of urban forests connecting with recreational forests of near suburbs, and a wooded protective belt, the radius of which is proportional to its humanity (the latter has the status of PAs), for considerations of "workers' health" in the 1960s. Advanced protection of the recreational resources of citizens and the idea of \u200b\u200benvironmental sustainability. In the 1960-1970s. This domestic innovation is rapidly borrowed by major cities in Sottars (especially GDR and Czech Republic), as well as in the most "environmentally friendly" from developed countries (Scandinavia, Canada, Germany, etc.). ( 6, 9, 10, 11 )b.. In the area of \u200b\u200bthe influence of major urban centers of developed countries, fragmentation of habitats by the development of a / d network and the country / industrial development causes a rapid reduction in the number of large and urbobic species of animals, birds, other vertebrates, and other biotopically and geographically conservative species dedicated to major arrays of indigenous communities. As they develop mosaic anthropogenic violations, and even more so reduce area and / or fragmentation they disappear from old-axis areas. Such are the black stork, lynx, bear, dehumaic, philin, a swift owl, three-pailed and medium-sized dyatlah, etc. ( 2, 4, 5, 6 ).

III. The period of attempts to transition to sustainable development, 1972 - now
9 . Completion of the transition from extensive C / x to intense. The latter even in unfavorable years can produce the right amount of grain and meat for themselves and serviced the city market. In fact, the productivity of C / X is made independent of the natural dynamics of climatic, and then soil conditions. The landscape becomes truly man-made, and the supply of grain, milk, meat, technical crops on the city market are stable and planned in advance. but. For the growth of the productivity of intensive agriculture, the growth of environmental risks is widespread: intensive C / x is made not less than the source of pollution than the city industry, the increase in the productivity of "intensive hectare" in proportion to the risk of its loss in the next few years from erosion, pollution, salinization or - most importantly - Sales for building a nearby city, in the process of growth "absorbing" productive lands of the Vastg ( 9, 10 ).b.. Transformation ordinary species feathered predators to rare and vulnerable (in some cases - disappearing) due to campaigns "combating harmful predators" in the interests of C / x, widespread use of insecticides, Chemical struggle with harmful rodents (3, 5, 6 ).in. Mass death of insects - pollinators and entomophages, the fall in the number of insectivore birds and mammals by 2-3 of the Procedure due to the wide use of pesticides ( 6, 10 ). Mass death of feathery ditch (chicken, shepherds, stuffs, drofs) breeding in the fields, from the use of harvesting equipment ( 2 ).
10 . Degradation of generallylanet ecosystem regulators but. Transboundary transfer of contaminants, including dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls, and chlororganic pesticides accumulated in live tissues, with a concentration in the "end links" of the power chain. In developed countries - mass drying of forests, the death of hydrobionts from acid precipitation. Reserves, national parks, generally small natural territories for the first time become "islands" in the "sea" of urbanized and transformed landscapes, "in the crossroads" of industrial emissions, agricultural and mine polishes with surrounding territories, gradually change ( 1, 2, 3, 8 ).b.. Degradation of wetlands, mass drainage marshes For the production of peat and the maintenance of agriculture threatens various types of birds on the paths of migration and (which is much significant) makes the maximum contribution to the anthropogenic climate change. As well as the extraction of hydrocarbons in the tundra zone and on the Arctic shelf (however, it became known only in the 1990s). ( 2, 4, 5, 8, 10 ).in. Ozone story - The first success of environmental protection in the regulation of global instability through a decrease in emissions and structural reorganization of the industry ( 8, 10, 11 ).g.. Mass extermination of whales, the destruction of the "whale elevator" (1, 2, 8 ).d.. Mass destruction of tropical forests for the supply of valuable wood in developed countries, maintaining (primitive) local s / x, ( 4, 7, 8 ),
11 . The second rise in the intensity of the C / x in developed countries of Western Europe and S.Ameriki (including an increase in the average dose of fertilizers and pesticides), accompanied by the restructuring of its structure and redevelopment of the Landscape ("field enlarging", the disappearance of the wasteland, the development and improvement of the network A / d roads in agracaffa) but. "Green Revolution" in Lugovnia, many times increased feeding harvests due to fertilizer, reclamation, other forms of oculting sharply reduced biodiversity of conventional trees in developed countries. In the richer conditions of soil nutrition and regulation of humidity, 1-2 species begin to dominate, and the remaining populations are unstable or at all threatened with disappearance. As a result of the biodiversity of the meadows and others, the "traditional agricultural gauge" in developed countries has to restore artificially (4, 6, 9 ). Appearance instability of ordinary bird species requiring their monitoring (and not only rare and vulnerable, as in previous years), with the trend of instability to growth. Rapid and unexpected for naturalists of populations of a number of synanthropic species of birds and other animals, yesterday formerly prosperous and numerous - like a house sparrow, check box, sipuhs, urban swallows, etc. ( 6, 9 ).
12 . The growth in the welfare of the majority of the population in developed countries, the emergence of "consumer class" in the third world countries increase the load on the preserved natural habitats (especially in combination with urbanization, increasing the citizens of citizens to nature). but. Destruction of habitats of near suburbs combined effects of recreational burden, development of a network of a / d, country and cottage construction ( 4, 6, 7, 9, 11 ).b.. Intensification of mass tourism, incl. Far and environmental tourism, in exotic countries. A sharp increase in the recreational burden on the shores of the seas and the most attractive inland reservoirs, in combination with the development of the tourist infrastructure, leads to the destruction of the respective natural landscapes, incl. Unique biomas of seaside meadows and salty swamps (marches), mangrove forests, etc. are destroyed. ( 4, 5, 6, 8 )
13 . Fast development of ecosystem consequences of anthropogenic climate change. but. The increase in droughts in a zone where climate change entails, besides warming, also aridization. In combination with the former C / x load (especially distant animal husbandry), it leads to the development of desertification, the degradation of Pashnya and pastures, the appearance of "climate refugees". Development Public Movement for Water and Soil Forest Safety In the third world countries, the appearance of there Environmentally sustainable ways of conducting C / x (7, 8, 11 ). The death of coral reefs Due to the warming of the climate and the acidification of water with the increased concentration of C0 2 (harmful and on other shell hydrobionts) ( 7, 8 ).in. Increasing damage from tropical cyclones caused by pouring rains and floods. Their destructive effect is sharply enhanced by the note of the forests in the floodplains of the rivers and the destruction of wetlands, in untouched the form absorbing most of the flood (7, 8 ).

Designations. BUT - the period, its approximate borders in time, B. - The conversion of wildlife in their sequences, in brackets - the affected components of the biota: 1 - Key species whose biosotic activity is reproduced by a specific pattern of the mosaic structure of habitat. 2 - Commercial species, bioresources (forest, fish, game, etc.). 3 - Tops of the top of the ecological pyramid, population groups of which require a significant territory (large birds and mammals + large hoofs), 4 - Simplification, fragmentation and complete destruction of habitats of "wild" species. 5 - Rare and vulnerable types. 6 - Ordinary views. 7 - Destruction and transformation of natural landscapes (including anthropogenically changed and operated, for example, s / x). 8 - "Layer" of ecosystem regulators, 9 - Reducing the environmental capacity of habitats in agricultural and other anthropogenically changed landscapes. 10 - Pollution I. 11 - other environmental risk factors affecting health and expected life expectancy of people.

"The main habitats of the Earth today

The description of the habitats currently on Earth puts the problem opposite to us opposite to the one with which we have come across in the previous section - excess data. Very complex habitat classifications were compiled, even more complicated than those discussed in Section. 1.2, and they all have their own advantages. Here I will adhere to the most comprehensive approach to the most important habitats comparable to the overview of the wobbies of the past given in the previous section. The figures that will be further presented are taken from the World Resources 2000-2001 (WRI, 2000).

Valuable information on world ecosystems and environmental services used when working on this section was kindly provided by UNDP (United Nations Development Program), UNEP (United Nations Environment Program), WB (World Bank), as well as WRI (Institute world resources). The classification contains only five types of habitats / ecosystems: forest, meadow, agricultural land, coastal and freshwater ecosystems. Meadow's ecosystems are considered in a very broad sense and include open and closed landscapes, for example, thickets of shrubs, wooded savanna, savanna, meadow and tundra. Agricultural ecosystems include arable land, as well as a mosaic of cultural and natural vegetation. On a global scale, terrestrial forest ecosystems, meadows and agro-ecosystems make up 86% of the total land area. The remaining part of the earth's surface is mainly snow and ice, as well as areas populated by people -urbanized territories (4%) and non-fermentation lands (WRI, 2000).

Let's start with the comparison of the basic habitats of the Earth, which it was about 8 ooky years ago, when the human influence was minimal, and a modern situation (Fig. 1.10). Naturally, relative to any numbers characterizing the state of sushi 8 ooky years ago, there are doubts, this also applies to climate change since the last glaciation.

Fig. 1.10. The host of the basic habitats of the Earth is about 8,000 years ago and nowadays. Three main natural types of habitats - forest, meadow and others are considered. Nowadays, the forests are divided into virgin, incorrect to anthropogenic effects; Virgin, exposed to anthropogenic effects, and transformed. Meadows are divided into meadows and agricultural land. The numbers are taken from WRI (2000). (Orig.). [Designations to the right of the drawing, from top to bottom: a) Furhopogenic effects of virgin forests, b) anthropogenic impacts of virgin forests, c) transformed forests, d) meadows, e) agricultural land, e) other landscapes]. This and two are the following drawing from Khansky, 2010.

The current situation is complicated among other things, the fact that there are very extensive territories, on which we see the mixing of agricultural land, forests and meadows (7% of the Sushi Square; WRI, 2000). I included these lands in agricultural habitats. Forest cover 8,000 years ago was almost half (48%) of the total sushi area - about 130 million km2, these calculations are made on the basis of modern climatic data (WRI, 2000). 3 main factor: temperature, precipitation and evapotranspiration (HOLDRIDGE, 1967) contribute to the development of sushi forest. The forests are found there, where the average annual precipitation is 250 mm per year, the potential evapotranspiration is less than 4, and the average annual temperature exceeds a negative value. Eight thousand years ago, meadows, that is, open landscapes, occupied a little less area (42%) than forests, whereas the rest of the sushi was mainly covered with ice.

In general terms, such a division of sushi on forest and irrespose habitats refers to the late Miocene, when the formation of major mountain chains and elevations of Asia and North America led to cooling and drowning climate, as well as the Great Expansion of Open Types of Vegetation and Reduces Forest Square, as It was described above.

The percentage of sushi coating the main types of habitat-ecosystems today is strongerly different from what it was 8,000 years ago (Fig. 1.10). Forest area decreased, approximately half. As for the remaining forests, only half of them can be considered as "relatively untouched, large natural intact forest ecosystems" [in the classification of WRI (2000) they are called "border" ( frontier.) Forests], and only 60% of them are not under threat of disappearance.

Thus, the area of \u200b\u200bnatural forest ecosystems that are not threatened with disappearance has decreased from 62 million km 2 to only 8.4 million km 2 today. A significant part of the remaining forests is the boreal (northern) forests of Russia and North America, as well as the tropical forests of South America. A bit of tropical forests remained in South Asia (mainly in Indonesia) and Africa (mainly in the Democratic Republic of the Congo). These forests correspond to the criterion "relatively untouched, large natural intact forest ecosystems" (WRI, 2000).

[cm. Lowned forest areas and their degradation in a number of countries

About half of modern forests make up tropical forests, of which 12% are protected, while only 6% of the netropic forests are protected (WRI, 2000). The level of protected forests under consideration and their types also differ in different countries.

A large reduction in forest arrays over the past 8 years of years has happened due to a sharp increase in the area of \u200b\u200bagro-ecosystems, which are now occupied by 28% of the entire land area (21%, if not to take into account the area, which present agrocenoses, forming a mosaic with forests and lugastric grounds) .

However, it has not been proven that only forests are transferred to the agro-ecosystem. The territories occupied by the meadows remained approximately the same as 8,000 years ago, but there were significant changes here. The previously existing meadows turned into agrocenoses, while the territories on which were once there were forests, are currently treating pastures, that is, to the meadows. The modern combination of forests, meadows and agricultural land displays the difference in the nature of the continents. The share of forests is much higher (33-14%) in Europe, Russia and America than in the Middle East, in Africa and Oceania, where forests are covered only from 2 to 14%, and where the meadows are dominated (74-84%; WRI, 2000). The continent is not quite common in this regard in this regard, which is relatively few of both forests (18%) and meadows (41%), and agricultural land is larger than any other continent - 41%. Almost Europe can be compared with Asia, not including Russia. Freshwater ecosystems - rivers, lakes and wetlands are 1% of the ground surface.

The human effect on them is very large: 60% of large rivers are strongly or moderately separated by various dams and channels (WRI, 2000), half of the marshy lands were lost in the 20th century (Myers, 1997). The coastal zones are defined (WRI, 2000) as the territories extending from the tidal and sub-art zones, which are above the continental shelf, up to the adjacent lands up to 100 km from the coast. Thus, coastal zones are a combination of various habitats, which were undergoing strong human influence, as about 40% of the world's population lives within 100 km from the coastline (WRI, 2000). Two specific habitats are characteristic of coastal territories - these are mangroves and coral reefs.

Mangrove trees in the tropical regions occupy about a quarter of the coastline area. The losses of mangrove forests are huge, according to experts more than half of them on our planet already destroyed (Kelleher et al., 1995). Degradation (discoloration) of coral reefs has become a serious problem since recently, which may have arisen due to the increase in the sea temperature due to global warming. "

Prepared based on materials Newscientist.

Antropocene almost two million years

"Dmitry Chilkov

The world's world domination began with fire, and not with factories or farms.
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The era, into which a person dominates over the planet, causing the mass extinction of species, is called anthropoulos. And this era may have begun before, much earlier than to think. Andrew Glylicson from the Australian National University argues that people received power over the planet not with the beginning of the industrial revolution 250 years ago and not with the advent of agriculture 10 thousand years ago, but in those foggy times, for 1.8 million years before the present day, when a person Stirling tamed fire. Of course, now, throwing greenhouse gases and possessing nuclear technology, we affect the globe much stronger. But E. Glylikson believes that it was becoming a decisive step by fire, when people first got the opportunity to extract huge amounts of energy and use them with benefits for themselves.

Image of Jos Hagelaars / Max EDKINS / WORLD BANK.

On their lectures Martin Rice, Royal Astronomer, Offer Audience to look at Earth from the point of view of aliens. Over the past 8 thousand years, signs of plant cultivation, lights of large cities, an atmosphere contaminated with aerosols and greenhouse gases, nuclear explosions and artificial satellites have appeared. And Martin Rice asks a sharp question:

"Maybe this is our last century?"

Of all the factors that make a possible life on Earth, one is worth a mansion - the presence of liquid water. Water was vital and for human development. Starting from the Neolithic, the civilization-based agriculture was concentrated along the rivers (recall the Nile, Euphrates, Huanghe) or in the areas of groundwater accumulation, as on Yucatan Peninsula. The availability of water for a person, in turn, depends on the water cycle in nature - and therefore, from climate, including from annual rhythms, which manage the melting and growth of mountain glaciers, the impact of forests on the microclimate, soil erosion and - in some corners The world, in particular, in Indonesian Islands, - volcanic activity.

Water on Earth exists due to the perfect distance from the sun, tectonic and volcanic activity, as well as the composition of the atmosphere. The temperature on the surface of the planet varies from approximately -90 to +58 ° C. The atmosphere controlling the carbon, oxygen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur, plays the role of lung biosphere. It makes it possible to exist an aquatic environment where metabolic microbiological processes occur: hemobacteria is collected around volcanic fumaroles, apparently in deep cracks of the cortex, phototrophs prefer proximity to the surface.

History of the atmosphere and life interdependent.

At first, the Earth had an atmosphere similar to the Venusian, where CO 2, CO, SO 2, N 2 O, CH 4, H 2 prevailed and, possibly H 2 S. CO 2 seizure and the accumulation of nitrogen - stable nonreactive gas - led to the first Ice period that happened already 3 billion years ago.

We know that periods of gradual development were interrupted by the epochs of sharp changes, which for a relatively short time converted the physical condition of the "atmosphere - ocean" system and the habitat of plants and organisms, leading to the massive disappearance of species. As a rule, some large-scale cataclysm like an eruption of a volcano, meteorite drops or active methane emissions. Natural selection is slow, and species simply do not have time to adapt to rapid climate change. But then there were natural cataclysms, and now we ourselves, with our own hands for some two hundred years, increased the temperature of the air for almost 2 ° C and we are moving to the 4 ° C mark (see the image above), not paying attention to our same Scientists.

Anthropocet - Era of man - began, Crowground and Steffenu, with the industrial revolution, and in opinion Ruddiman - With the advent of agriculture in neolithic. E. Glylikson also calls to draw attention to the fact that the taming of fire (read: intentional energy production) led to an increase in entropy in nature by several orders of magnitude. It could not not cause a chain not only cultural, but also biological changes. Rank Homo. Developed in relatively protected subtropical rift valleys. The fire allowed him to change extensive spaces on the surface of the planet and to ride all over the world. Thus, the person influenced the atmosphere and caused the sixth mass extinction of species.

In nature, there are many species capable of destroying the environment: viruses excreasing methane and hydrogen sulfide bacteria, fiery ants, locusts, rabbits. In addition, there are creatures that destroy the host organism: certain types of mushrooms, worms, arthropods, ringed worms and even vertebrates (buffalo flavors, vampire bats). The taming of fire added to this list Homo.. And in the middle of the 20th century, the splitting of the atom allowed people to cause a chain reaction capable of destroying the greater part of the biosphere.

Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, who accelerated in the 1980s, human activity led to the atmosphere of more than 560 billion tons of carbon (these are not only industrial emissions, but also clearing the Earth), which caused an unprecedented rapid climate change, with which it will not compare One natural warming in geological history.

Another start date of anthropocene - 1610

In addition, in the early XVII century, the pollen of corn brought from South America first appears in the early XVII century. This event indicates that there were no analogues earlier the process of instantaneous transfer of many biological species from the continent to the continent due to the human activity. "

This and the following drawings are from a quoted article in Nature

Geologists need sharp changes, marking boundaries between formations, so-called. "Golden nails", and this is one of the few sharp jumps, see in Nature.

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