Structure modern ecology— In 1866, the term “ecology” was first proposed to be used by the German scientist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel. Initially, this term was used to study the relationships between plants and animals, which are part of persistent and organized systems that have developed during the process of evolution in a certain environment. With the development of society, human influence on the nature of the planet has become more noticeable, and recently it has been simply catastrophic.

Modern ecology

Therefore, ecology as a science went through a period of transformation and received a number of directions in connection with the activities of “Homo sapiens”. Branches of ecology are divided into areas of research. Plant ecology studies the relationships of plant organisms with the environment.

Animal ecology deals with the dynamics and organization of the animal world. General ecology studies in depth all types of ecosystems. In 1910, the III Botanical Congress was held in Brussels, at which it was decided to distinguish separate directions in the study of plant ecology - autecology and synecology. This division also affected animal ecology and general ecology.

Later, population ecology (demecology) was distinguished. Autecology turns its attention to the relationship between representatives of a species and the environment. It mainly explores the boundaries of the persistence of a species and its relationship to environmental factors: heat, light, moisture, productivity, etc., as well as the effect of the environment on the behavior of the organism, its physiology and morphology, reveals general patterns influence of environmental factors on organisms.

The structure of modern ecology and its place in the system of sciences

The structure of modern ecology and its place in the system of sciences:

Synecology pays Special attention relationships between communities that belong to different types of certain groups of organisms. The interaction between these groupings and environmental factors is also considered.

Demecology pays special attention to the structure of the species: biological, age, sexual, ethological, describes fluctuations in the number various types and their reasons. Scientists distinguish the ecology of humans, animals, plants and the ecology of microorganisms.

Social ecology emphasizes the interaction between society and the environment, as well as methods for its conservation.

Modern ecology is a science that examines the basic laws of the functioning of ecosystems belonging to different levels of development. This is a complex science that studies the place of residence of living organisms, including humans.

According to the subjects of research, ecology is divided into the ecology of plants, animals, humans, fungi, microorganisms, as well as applied, general, agricultural, and engineering. It is a theoretical and generalizing discipline.

Based on the habitat and components, the ecology of land, fresh water, marine, alpine, and chemical is distinguished. Based on approaches to the subject of study, ecology is divided into analytical and dynamic.

Realities modern life are forced to introduce different areas of environmental research to provide specialists with the environmental information necessary for decision-making in all spheres of human activity.

More than a hundred areas of research in ecology have been formed, united according to the principles of sectoral structure, relationships, interdependence, practical and theoretical significance.

Applied ecology is based on various branches of biology, as well as on the natural sciences - physics, chemistry, geology, geography, mathematics, studies the mechanisms and consequences of destruction of the biosphere by humans, develops recommendations for the prevention of these processes and principles of skillful use natural resources without damaging the living environment.

From applied ecology to scientific directions industrial ecology, energy ecology, agricultural ecology, carcinogenic ecology, etc. arise. The current unfavorable situation requires the greening of all forms of human activity, taking into account all the laws and needs of ecology. Economics, law and morality are closely connected in this science.

Only in combination with them can the current state of the world around us and humanity’s attitude towards it be changed for the better.

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And the relationships between organisms and the environment in which they live.

The term “ecology” (from the Greek oikos - house, logos - science) was proposed in 1866 by the German zoologist E. Haeckel.

Why does every person, including engineering and technical workers, need environmental culture and environmental education?

At present, it is possible to stop the violation of environmental laws only by raising the ecological culture of each member of society to the proper height, and this can be done primarily through education, through studying the fundamentals of ecology. What is especially important for specialists in the field of science technical direction, primarily for civil engineers, engineers in the field of chemistry, petrochemistry, metallurgy, mechanical engineering, food and mining industries, etc.

Ecology initially developed as component biological science.

Ecology subject

Modern ecology is a complex discipline that combines the foundations of several sciences (biology, chemistry, physics, sociology, geography, geology, etc.).

The main object of study in ecology is ecosystems - unified natural complexes formed by living organisms and their habitat. Ecology also studies individual species of organisms (organismal level), populations (population-species level) and the biosphere as a whole (biosphere level).

The main, traditional part of ecology as a biological science is general ecology, or bioecology, which studies the relationships of living systems of different ranks (organisms, populations, ecosystems) with the environment and among themselves.

Structure of the science of ecology

The following main sections are distinguished as part of general ecology:

  • autecology, which studies the individual connections of an individual organism (species, individuals) with its environment;
  • demecology or population ecology, the study of the structure and dynamics of populations individual species. Population ecology is also considered as a special branch of autecology;
  • synecology, i.e. ecology of communities;
  • ecosystem ecology;
  • biosphere ecology.

In addition, ecology is classified according to specific objects and environments of study, i.e. distinguish between animal ecology, plant ecology, and microbial ecology.

At the intersection of ecology with other branches of knowledge, the development of such new directions as engineering ecology, geoecology, mathematical ecology, agricultural ecology, etc. continues.

From a scientific and practical point of view, the division of ecology into theoretical and applied is quite justified.

Theoretical ecology reveals the general laws of the organization of life.

Applied ecology studies the mechanisms of human destruction of the biosphere, ways to prevent this process, and develops principles for the rational use of natural resources. Scientific basis applied ecology is a system of general environmental laws, rules and principles.

Ecological tasks

The challenges of ecology are very diverse.

In theoretical terms, these include:

  • development general theory sustainability of ecological systems,
  • study of ecological mechanisms of adaptation to the environment,
  • population control research populations,
  • study of biological diversity and mechanisms of its maintenance;
  • research of production processes,
  • study of processes occurring in biosphere , in order to maintain its stability,
  • condition modeling ecosystems and global biosphere processes.

The main applied problems that ecology must solve at present are the following:

  • forecasting and assessment of possible negative consequences in the natural environment under the influence of human activities,
  • improving the quality of the natural environment,
  • preservation , reproduction and rational use of natural resources,
  • optimization of engineering, economic, organizational, legal, social and other solutions to ensure environmentally safe sustainable development, primarily in the most environmentally disadvantaged areas.

The strategic task of ecology is the development of a theory of interaction between nature and society based on a new view that considers human society as an integral part of the biosphere.

Thus, ecology becomes one of the most important sciences future.

The structure of modern ecology.

Modern ecology - ϶ᴛᴏ basic science about nature, which is comprehensive and combines knowledge of the foundations of several classical natural sciences: biology, geology, geography, climatology, landscape science, etc.
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According to the basic provisions of this science, man is part of the biosphere as a representative of one of the biological species and, just as other organisms, cannot exist without biota.

Considering the structure of modern ecology, we can distinguish 3 main branches:

1. General ecology(bioecology) - ϶ᴛᴏ study of the relationships of living systems of different ranks (organisms, populations, ecosystems) with the environment and among themselves. This part of ecology, in turn, is divided into the following sections:

- autecology– study of the patterns of relationships between organisms of a particular species and their habitat;

- demecology– ecology of populations;

- synecology– ecology of communities;

- ecosystem and biosphere ecology.

2. Geoecology- ϶ᴛᴏ study of geospheres, their dynamics and interactions, geophysical living conditions, factors (resources and conditions) of non-living environmental conditions acting on organisms.

3. Applied ecology- ϶ᴛᴏ aspects of engineering, social, economic protection of the human environment, problems of relationships between nature and society, environmental principles of nature conservation.

Global environmental crisis and the relevance of the problem of environmental danger.

Ecological problem arose with the advent of man on Earth. The factor has intervened in the natural and balanced cycle of substances in the biosphere economic activity a person who steadily introduced imbalance into the OS as he developed.

In the first years of Soviet power, an ecological approach to nature conservation prevailed. Nature reserves were organized, which are unique institutions with the functions of centers for environmental research, as well as standards for certain natural zones.

Despite initial successes, the state of ecologically oriented conservation has not been truly sustainable. The main obstacles were new priorities and objectives of the 5-year plans. Ideas of transforming and conquering nature appeared. Progress in the development of mankind began to be identified with its complete dominance over the entire course of life on the planet.

Nature has been turned into an enemy that must be defeated in the process of creating a man-made OS. The result of this was the development of total logging operations with the destruction of forest ecosystems, development of river diversions, work on the acclimatization of various game animals and the reclamation of valuable swamp ecosystems, the development of virgin lands, as well as many other projects that led to the destruction of many natural ecosystems in Russia.

Today Russia actively participates in the work of international conferences and organizations on environmental protection, and has joined numerous international agreements in this area.

Through the efforts of the media and environmentalists, the consciousness of people and government practice Russia is introducing the concept of environmental safety as an element of state and personal security.

In all cases, environmental danger is associated with the presence or emergence of threats. There are 4 main threats to general security:

1. Military threats– global nuclear war, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, international arms transportation, major wars and local conflicts;

2. Economic and social threats– mass poverty causing hunger, economic collapse, destabilization of capital movements, excessive population growth and urbanization; mass m/n migration, gene manipulation;

3. Environmental threats– changes in the composition of the atmosphere and their consequences, pollution of fresh water natural waters, oceans and coastal waters, deforestation and desertification, soil erosion and loss of land fertility, man-made hazards caused by industrial enterprises, transportation and use of toxic chemical substances and materials, hazardous (toxic and radioactive) waste and its export, use of biotechnology;

4. threats of terrorism.

There are external and internal environmental threats. For example, for Russia, external threats include negative events associated with the destruction of natural ecosystems due to the transboundary transfer of pollution.

Potential sources of environmental hazard are any objects of economic (industrial), household, military and other activities, since they contain environmental hazard factors (environmental risks). The latter include anthropogenic or natural impacts that can lead to negative changes in the environment and, in this regard, to a deterioration in human health.

Environmental hazards may arise as a result of environmental violations and crimes.

The problem of environmental danger is considered from the perspective of the “triad”: anthropocentric (quality of the habitat), biosphere-ecological (conditions for the preservation of natural ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole) and resource (possibility of farming with minimal damage to the environment).

Several levels of environmental danger can be distinguished: global, national (state), regional, local, impact (spot).

Global upheavals associated with genocide, first in relation to the animal and then plant world, and finally, crushing pressure on land, water resources and the atmosphere was generated by that tangle of contradictions that is commonly called the problem of human survival.

Main global problems ecology are: population growth; consumption of natural resources; air pollution.

The structure of modern ecology. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Structure of modern ecology." 2017, 2018.

Since the time of E. Haeckel, the idea of ​​the content of the subject “Ecology” (biological science that studies the relationships of animals with organic and inorganic environments) has undergone a number of clarifications, specifications and expanded many times over. However, there is still no clear, strict and unified definition.

Definitions of the concept of “ecology” in modern scientific literature a bunch of. And almost all of them focus on the relationships between living organisms and their environment.

One of the definitions:

Ecology (from the Greek “oikos” - dwelling, habitat, “logos” - teaching) is a science that studies the patterns of existence, formation and functioning of biological systems at all levels - from organisms to the biosphere and their relationship with external conditions.

The object of research in ecology is both individual individuals (organisms) and groups of individuals (populations, species and their communities, i.e. biocenoses and ecosystems), as well as individual environmental factors and the environment as a whole. Objects of environmental study include wild and human-bred plants, animals, and man himself as an organism, his natural and social living environment.

Modern ecology is a complex (interdisciplinary) science that synthesizes data from natural and social sciences about nature and the interaction of nature and society (diagram 1. 1).

Scheme. 1. 1 Structure of modern ecology.

The most important of all areas of modern ecology is the study of the survival of living beings in the environment. Therefore, the main part of ecology as a biological science is general ecology (bioecology), which studies the patterns of relationships between living organisms, populations and communities with each other and the environment.

Bioecology includes the following sections:

Autecology (ecology of individuals) - studies the influence of environmental factors on individual organisms (species, individuals);

Demoecology (population ecology) - studies the structure and dynamics of populations of individual species;

Synecology (biogeocenology, ecology of ecosystems) - studies the laws of existence and properties of complex communities of organisms as unified systems.

Global ecology - studies the biosphere as a global ecosystem formed from a set of biogeocenoses (ecosystems).

Based on specific objects of research in bioecology, they distinguish between plant ecology, animal ecology, microbial ecology, etc.

Section - geoecology studies the biosphere shells of the Earth (atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere) and requires the integration of geology and geography, soil science and geochemistry, hydrogeology and hydrology, etc. unified system knowledge. Based on specific environments, research in geoecology distinguishes between terrestrial ecology, freshwater ecology, marine ecology, highland ecology, etc.



Applied ecology is represented by a complex of disciplines related to various areas of human activity. At the intersection of ecology with other branches of knowledge, such areas as agricultural ecology, industrial ecology, chemical ecology, commercial ecology, medical ecology, environmental management, etc. are developing. All these areas study complex problems of human interaction with the environment, develop ways to prevent the destruction of the biosphere by humans and develop principles of rational environmental management.

At the end of the 20th century, social ecology appeared and exists, which studies the relationships in the “human society-nature” system and determines: the specific role of man in systems of various ranks, the difference between this role and the role of other living beings, ways to optimize the relationship between man and the environment, theoretical basis rational environmental management.

Human ecology considers human interaction as biosocial being with its natural, social and cultural environment. Within its framework they are developing: city ecology, population ecology, arcology (an architectural concept proposed by the Italian architect P. Soleri in 1919; he proposed solving urban problems of the 20th century by building giant vertical structures capable of accommodating millions of residents).

Thus, in recent decades, modern ecology has actually gone beyond just biology and is experiencing enormous development in various directions. This results in a variety of objects, methods and means of environmental research, many of which turn out to be borrowed from related fields of knowledge.

Challenges of modern ecology

n development of a general theory of stability of biological systems;

n study of ecological mechanisms of adaptation of living organisms to the environment;

n study of population regulation;

n study of biological diversity and the mechanisms of its maintenance;

n study of processes occurring in the biosphere in order to maintain its stability;

n modeling the state of ecosystems and global biosphere processes;

n forecasting and assessing possible negative consequences in the environment under the influence of human activities;

n improving the quality of the natural environment;

conservation, reproduction and rational use of natural resources.

Ecology as a science has gone through a period of transformation and received a number of directions in connection with the activities of “homo sapiens”. Branches of ecology are divided into areas of research. Plant ecology studies the relationships of plant organisms with the environment.

Currently, ecology has been divided into a number of scientific branches and disciplines, sometimes far from the original understanding of ecology as a biological science about the relationship of living organisms with the environment. However, at the core of everything modern trends ecology lies in the fundamental ideas of bioecology - one of the oldest sections of modern ecology, which is based on fundamental knowledge about animals and flora. The subject of the study of bioecology is living beings, where a person, within the framework of science, is studied as biological species. Bioecology today is a combination of various scientific areas

H autecology, which studies the individual connections of an individual organism with the environment;

- population ecology, which deals with the relationships between organisms that belong to the same species and live in the same territory;

Synecology, which comprehensively studies groups, communities of organisms and their relationships in natural systems (ecosystems)

H global ecology, ecology of the biosphere as a global ecosystem.

Geoecology (geological ecology) is a complex science at the intersection of ecology and geology, studying the interaction of the lithosphere and biosphere, the role geological processes in the functioning of ecosystems taking into account human activities

Modern ecology is a complex of scientific disciplines. The basic one is general ecology, which studies the basic patterns of relationships between organisms and environmental conditions. Theoretical ecology studies the general patterns of the organization of life, including in connection with anthropogenic impact on natural systems. biosphere ecology entropy assimilation

Applied ecology studies the mechanisms of human destruction of the biosphere and ways to prevent this process, and also develops principles for the rational use of natural resources. Applied ecology is based on a system of laws, rules and principles of theoretical ecology.

The following scientific directions are distinguished from applied ecology:

Ch Ecology of the biosphere, which studies global changes occurring on our planet as a result of the impact of human economic activity on natural phenomena.

H Industrial ecology, which studies the impact of emissions from enterprises on environment and the possibility of reducing this impact by improving technologies and treatment facilities.

Agricultural ecology, which studies ways to produce agricultural products without depleting soil resources while preserving the environment. Medical ecology, which studies human diseases associated with environmental pollution.

H Geoecology, which studies the structure and functioning mechanisms of the biosphere, the connection and interrelation of biosphere and geological processes, the role of living matter in the energy and evolution of the biosphere, the participation of geological factors in the emergence and evolution of life on Earth.

Ch Mathematical ecology models ecological processes, i.e. changes in nature that can occur when environmental conditions change.

H Economic ecology develops economic mechanisms for rational use of natural resources and environmental protection.

Ch Legal ecology develops a system of laws aimed at protecting nature.

Ch Engineering ecology is a relatively new area of ​​environmental science that studies the interaction of technology and nature, the patterns of formation of regional and local natural-technical systems and methods of managing them in order to protect the natural environment and ensure environmental safety. It ensures compliance of equipment and technology of industrial facilities with environmental requirements

Social ecology has emerged quite recently. Only in 1986 did the first conference dedicated to the problems of this science take place in Lvov. The science of “home”, or the habitat of society (person, society), studies the planet Earth, as well as space - as the living environment of society.

H Human ecology - part social ecology, which considers the interaction of a person as a biosocial being with the surrounding world.

Ch Valeology is one of the new independent branches of human ecology - the science of quality of life and health.

Ch Synthetic evolutionary ecology is a new scientific discipline, including particular areas of ecology - general, bio-, geo- and social.

Dynamic ecology is a branch of ecology that studies organisms, their systems (populations, biocenoses) and their environment in a dynamic-evolutionary aspect.

Analytical ecology is a branch of ecology that studies the patterns (qualitative and quantitative) of the relationships of organisms and their populations with the environment.

Human ecology is a science that studies the patterns of human interaction as a biosocial being with a complex multicomponent environment, with a dynamic, ever-increasingly complex habitat, and the problems of preserving and promoting health.

Human ecology studies anthroposystems at various levels - from global to local and microlocal.

Social ecology is a branch of ecology that studies the relationship between human communities and the surrounding geographical-spatial, social and cultural environment, the direct and collateral influence of industrial activities on the composition and properties of the environment, the ecological impact of anthropogenic landscapes on human health and on the gene pool of human populations. Social ecology analyzes natural environment as a complex differentiated system, the various components of which are in dynamic equilibrium; considers the Earth's biosphere as an ecological niche of humanity, linking the environment and human activity into a single system “nature - society”; reveals the human impact on the balance of natural ecosystems, studies issues of management and rationalization of the relationship between man and nature. Within social ecology, a distinction is made between the ecology of culture, which seeks ways to preserve and restore various elements of the cultural environment created by humanity throughout its history (architectural monuments, landscapes, etc.), and the ecology of science, which analyzes the geographical location of research centers and personnel , disparities in the regional and national network research institutes, media, financing in the structure of scientific societies. The development of social ecology has served as a powerful impetus for the advancement of new values ​​for humanity - the preservation of ecosystems, the attitude towards the Earth as a unique mega-ecosystem, prudent and careful attitude to the living, etc.