1.2 Methodology for teaching life safety

The methodology of teaching any school subject is a pedagogical science about the system of teaching and upbringing processes, knowledge of which allows the teacher to manage educational process. Prokopyev I.I., Mikanovich N.V. Pedagogy. Minsk. 2002. P. 9.

Accordingly, the methodology of teaching life safety is the science of the totality of forms, methods and techniques of teaching students safe behavior in the surrounding world.

The method of teaching a subject is determined by its specifics, objectives and functions.

The objectives of the life safety course are:

Formation in students of a conscious and responsible attitude towards issues of personal safety and the safety of others;

Formation of knowledge and skills to recognize and assess dangerous and harmful environmental factors;

Formation of the ability to determine ways to protect against dangers, as well as eliminate negative consequences, and provide self- and mutual assistance in the event of dangers.

Like others academic disciplines, Life Safety Inspectorate is involved in a number of functions:

Educational, the essence of which is to equip students with a system of knowledge, skills, abilities;

Educational, consisting in the formation of a worldview, an active social position;

Developmental, boiling down to the development of creative thinking;

Psychological, designed to ensure the preparation of students for successful activities in modern world.

Based on the objectives of the life safety course and its content, the methodology for teaching life safety should answer the following questions: why study the dangers of the surrounding world and how to protect against them? What to teach? How to teach? What methods and methods should be used to achieve educational and educational goals?

The methodology explores and develops the objectives of life safety training, determines the content educational material on life safety and the construction of the subject, determines the forms, methods, means of teaching, education and development of schoolchildren. In addition, the methodology for teaching life safety clarifies the place and significance of life safety as an educational subject in common system training and education, and also develops educational equipment, methodological recommendations, instructions, methods of teaching individual sections of the life safety course.

In the structure of the BJ training methodology, general and special parts can be distinguished. General technique considers the issues of teaching all sections of life safety, namely the unity of content and teaching methods, the relationship between forms academic work, continuity of courses and the role of interdisciplinary connections, integrity and development of all elements of training.

Special (private) methods consider teaching issues specific to each section, related to the peculiarities of the content of educational material and the age of students. Pedagogy / Ed. L.P. Krivshenko. M. 2004. P. 56. They present methods for preparing and conducting lessons, excursions, extracurricular activities, and extracurricular activities.

The methodology of teaching life safety is closely related to other sciences.

In addition, the life safety teaching methodology is related to life safety. Life safety is an interdisciplinary field scientific knowledge, covering the theory and practice of human protection from environmental hazards in all areas of activity. Bayborodova L.V., Indyukov Yu.V. Methods of teaching life safety. M. 2004. P. 31.

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Introduction

The main goal of life safety as a science is to protect people in the technosphere from the negative impacts of anthropogenic and natural origin and to achieve comfortable living conditions.

The means to achieve this goal is the implementation by society of knowledge and skills aimed at reducing physical, chemical, biological and other negative impacts in the technosphere to acceptable values. This determines the body of knowledge included in the science of life safety, as well as the place of life safety in the general field of knowledge - the ecology of the technosphere.

Life safety is the science of comfortable and safe human interaction with the technosphere.

Fundamentals of life safety. Interaction between man and environment

Human life is inextricably linked with the environment around him. In the process of life, a person and the environment constantly interact with each other, forming a “person - environment” system.

Life activity is daily activity and recreation, a way of human existence.

Habitat - surrounding a person environment, caused at the moment by a combination of factors (physical, chemical, biological, social) that can have a direct or indirect immediate or remote impact on human activity, his health and offspring.

The main motivation of a person in his interaction with the environment is aimed at solving at least two main tasks:

- meeting your needs for food, water and air;
- creation and use of protection from the negative impacts of the environment.

In the “man - environment” system there is a continuous exchange of flows of matter, energy and information. This occurs in accordance with the law of conservation of life Yu.N. Kurazhkovsky: “Life can exist only in the process of moving through living body flows of matter, energy and information."

Flows of substances, energy and information have a natural and anthropogenic nature, they largely depend on the scale of transformative human activity and on the state of the environment.

Man and his environment interact harmoniously and develop only in conditions where the flows of matter, energy and information are within limits that are favorably perceived by man and the natural environment. Any excess of the usual flow levels is accompanied by negative impacts on humans and/or the environment.

By changing the value of any flow from the minimum to the maximum possible value, you can go through a number of characteristic states of interaction in the “person - environment” system:

- comfortable (optimal), when flows correspond to optimal conditions of interaction: create optimal conditions for activity and rest; prerequisites for the manifestation of the highest performance and, as a consequence, productivity; guarantee the preservation of human health and the integrity of the components of the habitat;
- acceptable when flows, affecting humans and the environment, do not have a negative impact on health, but lead to discomfort, reducing the efficiency of human activity. Compliance with the conditions of permissible interaction guarantees the impossibility of the emergence and development of irreversible negative processes in humans and in the environment;
- dangerous when flows exceed permissible levels and have an impact negative impact on human health, causing long-term exposure to disease, and/or lead to degradation of the natural environment;
- extremely dangerous when flows high levels in a short period of time can cause injury, lead to death, and cause destruction in the natural environment.

Of the four characteristic states of human interaction with the environment, only the first two (comfortable and acceptable) correspond to the positive conditions of everyday life, while the other two (dangerous and extremely dangerous) are unacceptable for human life processes, conservation and development of the natural environment.

Human interaction with the environment can be positive or negative; the nature of the interaction is determined by the flow of substances, energies and information.

disaster danger man-made anthropogenic

The interaction of a person with his environment in the process of life is based on the transfer between the elements of the “man - environment” system of mass flows of substances, energies of all types and information.

Characteristic flows of masses, energies and information of living space

Flows in the natural environment:

solar radiation, radiation from stars and planets;
cosmic rays, dust, asteroids;
electric and magnetic fields of the Earth;
cycles of substances in the biosphere in ecosystems, in biogeocenoses;
flows associated with atmospheric, hydrosphere and lithospheric phenomena, including natural ones;
other threads.

Flows in the technosphere:

flows of raw materials, energy;
flows of products from economic sectors;
economic waste;
information flows;
transport;
light (artificial lighting);
flows during man-made accidents and others.

Flows in the social environment:

informational (training, public administration, international cooperation, etc.);
human (demographic explosion, urbanization of the population);
flows of drugs, alcohol, etc.;
other threads.

Flows consumed and released by humans in the process of life:

flows of oxygen, water, food and other substances (alcohol, tobacco, drugs, etc.);
energy flows (mechanical, thermal, solar, etc.);
information flows;
waste streams from life processes, etc.

Such interaction ensures the satisfaction of basic human needs: air, water, food, solar energy, information about the environment, and the release of mass flows into the surrounding living space in the form of waste from the biological process, flows of thermal, mechanical and intellectual energy.

According to the laws of biogeocenosis, the exchange of flows of matter and energy in nature is possible without human participation: the natural environment ensures the flow of solar energy to our planet, which contributes to the creation of mass flows of plants and animals in the biosphere, flows of abiotic substances (air, water, etc.) and flows various types energy.

In the technosphere, flows of all types of raw materials and energy are exchanged, diverse flows of products and waste from their production are created (emissions into the atmosphere, discharges into water bodies, liquid and solid waste, various energy impacts). Here, significant flows of mass and energy can spontaneously arise (during all kinds of man-made accidents, catastrophes, etc.).

One should not exclude a significant exchange of flows that occurs in the social environment, where all types of flows characteristic of a person as an individual are generated and consumed, including ever-increasing information flows in the transfer of knowledge, management of society, and cooperation with other social formations. Social environment creates flows of all kinds aimed at transforming the natural and man-made worlds, at the same time creating security problems in society associated with antisocial behavior: smoking, consumption of alcohol and drugs, etc.

By changing the flows in the habitat, one can obtain a number of interactions in the “person - habitat” system, characterized as:

comfortable (optimal), when flows correspond to optimal conditions of interaction: create optimal conditions for activity and rest; prerequisites for the manifestation of the highest performance and, as a consequence, productivity; guarantee the preservation of human health and the integrity of the components of the habitat;
acceptable , when flows, affecting humans and the environment, do not have a negative impact on health, but lead to discomfort, reducing the efficiency of human activity. Compliance with the conditions of permissible interaction guarantees the impossibility of the emergence and development of irreversible negative processes in humans and in the environment;
dangerous when flows exceed permissible levels and have a negative impact on human health, causing disease during prolonged exposure, and/or lead to degradation of the natural environment;
extremely dangerous , when high-level flows over a short period of time can cause injury, death, and destruction of the environment. The death of the organism occurs at values of the impact factor that lie outside the tolerance zone; it can be considered as a process of disintegration of the organism into simple subsystems.

Comfortable and acceptable states of human interaction with the environment correspond to the positive conditions of everyday life, dangerous and extremely dangerous are unacceptable for human life processes.

The impact of the habitat on a living body can be positive or negative; the nature of the impact is determined by the parameters of flows of substances, energies and information and the ability of a living body to perceive these flows.

Federal Agency for Education GOU SPO

Dimitrovgrad College of Mechanics and Technology

dairy industry

ABSTRACT

On the topic: “Biological and social aspects of human interaction with the environment”

Discipline: "Ecology"

Completed by: 2nd year student of group 201

Chelnokova Yulia Sergeevna

Dimitrovgrad – 2010

Introduction - 3

1. The role of viruses in the biosphere - 3

2. Origin of viruses - 4

3. Structure of viruses - 5

4. Mechanism of infection - 6

5. Classification of viruses - 8

6. History - 9

7. Viral diseases - 10

8. Use of viruses - 12

9. Literature - 13

Introduction.

"There is no benefit that was not

would involve harm to others."

M. Montaigne

Environmental illiteracy of the population is a threat national security Russia. This situation is becoming especially relevant now, when human living conditions are rapidly changing. Happening global changes environment. The pace of life increases, accompanied by stress. Environmental tension is growing. All this cannot but affect the functional state and health of a person, the reserves of his body.

If a modern person knows how his body reacts to certain environmental factors and their changes, he is unlikely to put himself on the brink of survival. Otherwise, humanity will soon find itself in a major ecological crisis. There is probably no need to remind about the current state of affairs (anthropogenic pollution, man-made smog, ozone holes, global warming climate, etc.). All over the world, and primarily in economically developed countries, problems related to the state of the environment have worsened in recent decades. They acquired economic, social and political implications. Human ecology is a science that studies the patterns of interaction between human communities and their environment (natural, social, industrial, etc.). Man as part organic world is in close contact with its habitat. The habitat is that part of nature that surrounds the organism and with which it directly interacts. The habitat of each organism is diverse and changeable. It is composed of many elements, living and inanimate nature and elements introduced by man as a result of his economic activities. Thus, for environmentally competent and harmoniously balanced management on earth, you need to know a lot - from how individual organisms interact with the environment, to understanding the planetary connections of life and the place of human society in them.

Without studying the connections on which the functioning and sustainability of living nature are based, a person will not be able to understand how to build his own relationships with it today and in the future.

Ecology initially arose as a science about the habitat of living organisms: plants, animals (including humans), fungi, bacteria and viruses, about the relationships between organisms and their environment, and about the relationships of organisms with each other. The word “ecology” itself arose much later in comparison with the time of its appearance. environmental knowledge. It was introduced by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel (1869) and is derived from the Greek word “oikos” - house, dwelling. Until the 30s of the twentieth century general ecology, as a generally accepted science, did not yet exist. For a long time, ecology was represented by all sorts of private ecological disciplines: plant ecology, animal ecology, fungal ecology, etc. These disciplines were formed within the framework of the corresponding taxonomic sections of biology - botany, zoology, mycology, etc., as subdivisions of these sciences.

3. Man and nature - this includes sciences that study the relationship and interaction of man with the environment, and applied human ecology in order to connect developments in the above two sections with practical problems:

Engineering ecology

Chemical ecology

Fishing ecology

Agricultural ecology

Ecology of the city

Ecology and medicine

Ecology and culture

Ecology and law

Ecology and politics

Environmental education, etc.

1. Views on the relationship between man and nature in past eras

Human ecology as a scientific discipline has “absorbed” the ideas of many studies of the past and present. Today, scientists talk about the formation of an environmental culture, linking this phenomenon with the threat of a global environmental crisis. In the development of man’s views on his relationship with nature, five periods can be roughly distinguished.

1st period – early. Ancient man solved many problems that can be classified as environmental: choosing comfortable housing for life, protection from animals, enemies and natural disasters, obtaining suitable food, etc. Thus, man was forced to study the habits of animals and birds, distinguish edible plants from poisonous ones, and predict weather changes. As humanity developed, much of this knowledge and skills, previously enshrined in the form of taboos and religious prohibitions, were recorded in writing in the form of religious prohibitions, and later laws.

2nd period – ancient. Ancient scientists sought to comprehend the role and place individual and groups of people in the world around them, to understand how they are influenced by the natural, economic and living conditions around them. The relationship between man and his environment has been studied especially closely in connection with the danger of various diseases.

Period 3 – “Ancient Indian”. In the ancient Indian collection of regulations defining the behavior in the private and public life of every Indian in accordance with the system of views and religious dogmas of Brahmanism, called the Laws of Manu (2nd century BC - 2nd century AD), it was written that the destruction of the environment The environment kills people along with it - physically and morally. These laws condemned trade in the gifts of nature, harm to all living things, and water pollution.

4th period - medieval. In medieval legislation it can be found that environmental pollution represented one of the most ancient problems, which arose with the advent of the first settlements, which were characterized by wastewater, household waste right on the streets, etc. For example, in 1382 in France, according to the edict of Charles VI, it was forbidden to release smoke “nauseating and foul-smelling” in Paris.

5th period – subindustrial. Also associated with the reflection in the legislative acts of that time of provisions relating to pollution of human habitats. For example: in England in the 17th century, a decree was issued prohibiting lighting fires in fireplaces during parliamentary sessions in order to protect parliamentarians from smog; Peter I in 1718, he issued a decree “On maintaining the cleanliness of the streets in Moscow and on punishment for throwing litter and any droppings onto the streets and alleys”; In 1722, a police force was organized in Russia, whose instructions, among other rules, included clauses on the procedure for trading (“So that they do not sell any unhealthy food or carrion and for their profits stinking fresh meat, and also do not keep anything fresh for consumption for a long time ...").

2. Biological aspects of human interaction with the environment"

A person is constantly influenced by environmental factors. Their diversity can be divided into two large groups: natural and social.

Natural factors. This includes factors of living and inanimate nature. In accordance with this, biotic and abiotic factors are distinguished. Abiotic environmental factors include air, Atmosphere pressure, light radiation, magnetic fields, environmental temperature, weather factors, etc. Man has adapted to various climatic and geographical conditions. He has adapted to cyclical changes in nature: the change of day and night, seasons. Biotic factors include all the diversity of the animal and flora, including pathogens. As a rule, a person is affected by a complex natural factors. Thus, seasonal factors include changes in light, temperature, humidity, etc.

Social factors. Social factors in life modern man very diverse. Last time great importance purchased anthropogenic factors, especially soil, air and aquatic environment. Traditionally social factors various types of work activity, living conditions in the city and village are considered. Technical progress is characterized by the fact that the ratio of physical and mental labor changes, and therefore the complex of factors accompanying them. The development of hard-to-reach areas rich in minerals, deep-sea diving, space flights - all of the above is associated with extreme effects on the body. This may be the influence of high and low temperatures, noise, vibrations, changes in the gas environment and barometric pressure, the effect of altered gravity - overload or weightlessness. At the same time, ordinary work activity under normal conditions, including educational process, also requires the body to adapt to it.

From an ecological point of view, humanity can be considered as a global population biological species, component Earth's ecosystems. But today everyone understands that this species is special, significantly different from all other inhabitants of the planet. Only on the basis of a deep and comprehensive understanding of the relationships between humanity and nature is it possible to rationally and optimally regulate them in order to prevent their crisis and self-destruction, ensure the sustainable development of nature and society, and preserve the integrity of the global ecosystem.

The biological nature of man is manifested in the inherent desire of all living things to preserve and continue their life in time and space through reproduction, to ensure maximum safety and comfort. These natural aspirations are achieved through humanity's constant interactions with its environment. All people consume food and excrete products of physiological metabolism, protect themselves from enemies and try to avoid other dangers, participate in competition for life resources and promote the development of species that are beneficial to themselves. This is the main ecological similarity of humanity with the populations of all other biological species.

Ecological differences between humanity and populations of other species are manifested in the degree of development of many ecological connections and in the particular forms of their implementation. In total, these differences are most clearly expressed in the intensity and scale of human influence on the environment.

Like the population of any other species, humanity has a certain impact on the environment of its life, in turn experiencing its response resistance and response. But the pressure of humanity is incommensurate in its power and the speed of its increase with the influence on the environment of other species. In its scope, it now significantly exceeds the resistance of the environment and suppresses it over a significant part of the planet. The distinct imbalance of the forces of human pressure on the environment and its response resistance lies one of the most significant ecological uniqueness of man as a species.

The ecological similarity of man with other species is explained by his biological evolutionary origin, his belonging to the world of living nature, where biological laws apply. And its environmental differences are determined primarily by belonging to human society, where social laws apply, i.e. social. This duality is inherent only to man, who is the only biosocial species on our entire planet.

3. Social aspects human interaction with the environment"

Social ecology studies processes occurring at the level of the noosphere. With the emergence of new problems, new special sciences also emerged (sociology, radiation ecology, environmental education, environmental engineering, space ecology, etc.). A special position is occupied by human ecology, which studies the current situation modern humanity in global ecosystems.

Any human interaction with the environment is potentially dangerous. Its validity can be traced at all stages of development of the “man-environment” system. Thus, in the early stages of its development (the “human-PS” system), when there were no technical means, people experienced significant impacts from dangerous and harmful factors of natural origin (for example, high and low air temperatures, precipitation, lightning, contact with wild animals and so on.). Now, (the “man-technosphere” system) numerous factors of anthropogenic origin have been added to the natural ones (for example, noise, increased concentration of toxic substances in the air, water bodies and soil, ionizing radiation, electromagnetic field, etc.). This axiom also predetermines that all human actions and all components of the living environment (primarily vehicles and technologies), in addition to positive properties and results, have the ability to generate dangerous and harmful factors. Moreover, any positive action is inevitably accompanied by the emergence of a new potential danger or even a group of dangers (for example, when using electrical, nuclear or laser energy; cars, diesel locomotives or airplanes).

As a result of human interaction with the environment, the following are observed: 1) an increase in the number of injuries and deaths, both at work and at home; 2) reduction in life expectancy, especially among men; 3) an increase in material damage, both in production and in everyday life and (or) PS.

Human economic activity is also associated with the production of enormous waste (in Russia and developing countries, out of 40 kg of raw materials, only 10 kg are converted into useful products), which pollute the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, which, of course, disrupts the sustainable development of both natural and artificial ecosystems . In addition, a person interacts with the environment through one or another machine, which may have its own dangerous and harmful factors. The latter, under certain conditions, can affect both a person and his environment. And the uncontrolled release of energy, erroneous and unauthorized human actions and various natural phenomena can cause a developed emergency of both an anthropogenic and natural nature. These situations are characterized by their own dangerous and harmful factors, which have a strong impact on both the person and the ONH and PS. They are primary negative factors, which, as a rule, cause the emergence of secondary and tertiary factors in the ONH and the surrounding area. The latter have a significant energy level and have a more powerful effect on humans and their environment.

Thus, in the process of human interaction with the environment, there is a complex multi-level system “man-environment-machine-emergency”, each level of which carries its own dangerous and harmful Factors of the corresponding energy level. Must remember this future specialist and provide optimal interaction person with their environment.

Section 1. PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT

1.1. Physiology of labor and comfortable living conditions

Classification of the main forms of human activity. Physical and mental work. The severity and intensity of work. Static and dynamic forces. Muscle work. Methods for assessing the severity of work. Human energy expenditures during various types of activities.

An axiom about the relationship between comfort indicators and types of human activity. Hygienic standardization of microclimate parameters of industrial and non-industrial premises. The influence of deviations of industrial microclimate parameters from standard values on labor productivity and health status, occupational diseases. Adaptation and acclimatization under conditions of overheating and cooling. High and low atmospheric pressure, their effect on the human body, prevention, injuries.

Ergonomics and engineering psychology. Rational organization of the workplace, technical aesthetics, requirements for production premises. Work and rest schedules, the main ways to reduce fatigue and monotony of work, the work of women and adolescents.

1.2. Providing comfortable living conditions

The need for clean outdoor air to ensure the required indoor air quality.

Systems for ensuring microclimate parameters and air composition: heating, ventilation, air conditioning, their design and requirements for them. Control of microclimate parameters.

Lighting. Requirements for lighting systems. Natural and artificial lighting. Lamps, light sources. Lighting calculation. Diseases and injuries due to non-compliance with lighting requirements. Lighting control.

1.3. Negative factors in the “person - environment” system

Sources and levels of various types of hazards of natural, anthropogenic and technogenic origin, their evolution. Waste and uncontrolled energy output as the main causes of negative impacts on humans and the environment. Law on the inevitability of waste and side effects of production.

Classification of negative factors: natural, anthropogenic and technogenic, physical, chemical, biological, psychophysical; traumatic and harmful areas. Probability (risk) and levels of exposure to negative factors. Safety criteria. Axiom about zones and time of action of dangers.

The technosphere as a zone of high and high levels of danger. Demographic explosion, urbanization, scientific and technological revolution are the reasons for the formation of the technosphere. Types of technosphere zones and regions: production sphere, industrial zone, region, urban, residential, transport and domestic environment. Trends towards increasing energy levels in modern regions and zones of the technosphere.

Types, sources and levels of negative factors in the working environment: dust and air pollution, vibrations, acoustic vibrations; electromagnetic fields and radiation; ionizing radiation; moving machines and mechanisms; height, falling objects, industrial poisons, cutting fluids; increased or decreased air temperature, increased humidity and air speed; improper organization of lighting, lack of oxygen in the area

activities; physical and neuropsychic overload; mental stress; emotional overload.

Types and scales of the negative impact of economic facilities on industrial and residential areas, on the natural environment: emissions and discharges, solid and liquid waste, energy fields and radiation, heat emissions. Levels of primary pollutants atmospheric air, hydrosphere, soil and lithosphere by objects of energy, industry, transport, agriculture. Interaction and transformation of pollution in the environment. Smog formation, acid rain, destruction of the ozone layer, reduction in soil fertility and food quality, destruction of technical structures, etc. An axiom about the simultaneous impact of man-made hazards on humans, the natural environment and the technosphere.

Sources and levels of negative factors in the everyday environment. The relationship between the state of the everyday environment and a complex of negative factors in the industrial and urban environment.

Causes of man-made accidents and disasters. Explosions, fires and other extreme negative impacts on humans and the environment. Primary and secondary negative impacts in emergency situations, the scale of impact.

1.4. The impact of negative factors on humans and the environment

Structural and functional systems of perception and compensation by the human body of changes in environmental factors. Features of the structural and functional organization of a person. Natural systems person for protection from negative influences. Characteristics of the nervous system. Conditional and unconditioned reflexes. Characteristics of the analyzers: skin analyzer, touch, pain sensation, temperature sensitivity, muscle sense, taste perception, smell, hearing, vision. Human reaction time to stimuli. Acceptable exposure to harmful factors on humans and the environment. Principles for determining permissible exposure to harmful factors.

Harmful substances, classification, state of aggregation, routes of entry into the human body, distribution and transformation of harmful substances, action of harmful substances and sensitivity to them. Combined effect of harmful substances. Standardization of the content of harmful substances: maximum permissible one-time, average shift, average daily concentrations. Concentrations that cause the death of living organisms. Chronic poisoning, occupational and household diseases due to the action of toxins.

Negative impact of harmful substances on the environment. Permissible levels of exposure to harmful substances on the hydrosphere, soil, animals and vegetation, structural and building materials.

Mechanical vibrations. Types of vibrations and their effects on humans. Vibration normalization, vibration disease.

Acoustic vibrations. Constant and intermittent noise. The effect of noise on humans. Audiometry. Infrasound, possible levels. Ultrasound, contact and acoustic effects of ultrasound. Normalization of acoustic impact. Occupational diseases from exposure to noise, infrasound and ultrasound. The danger of their combined influence.

Shock wave, features of its direct and indirect effects on humans. Impact of a shock wave on people, structures, equipment, and the natural environment.

Electromagnetic fields. Human exposure to static electric and magnetic fields, industrial frequency electromagnetic fields, radio frequency electromagnetic fields. Impact of VHF and microwave radiation on the organs of vision, skin, central nervous system, blood composition and the state of the endocrine system. Standardization of electromagnetic fields. The effect of infrared radiation on the human body. Features of an electromagnetic pulse nuclear explosion. Broadband action light radiation high energies on the human body. Approximately safe level. Effect of UV radiation. Rationing. Occupational diseases, injuries. Negative consequences.

Ionizing radiation. External and internal irradiation. Their effect on the human body. Absorbed, exposure, dose equivalent, kerma. Comparative assessment of natural and anthropogenic radiation. Categories of exposed persons and groups of critical organs. Permissible levels for individual nuclides and their mixtures. Acceptable levels for external radiation, contamination of skin and surfaces. Radiation safety standards. Radiation sickness, other diseases. Long-term consequences. Impact ionizing radiation to the habitat.

Electricity. Impact electric current per person, touch voltage, step voltage, non-releasing current, fibrillation current. The influence of circuit parameters and the state of the human body on the outcome of electric shock.

Combined effect of negative factors. Exposure to harmful substances and physical factors; electromagnetic radiation and heat; electromagnetic and ionizing radiation.

A regional complex of natural anthropogenic and man-made negative factors is the cause of the environmental and demographic crisis in the regions.

Literature

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8. Henley E.J., Kumasoto X. Reliability of technical systems and risk assessment. M.: Mechanical Engineering, 1984.- 528 p.

Evolution and general ecology

Why did the general ecology form so late, take so long to form, and begin to develop so rapidly? Its history reflects the process of development of life and civilization on Earth. To better understand this, let's take a brief excursion into the Evolution of life on Earth. Traces of life have been found in the oldest rocks, which were formed about 3 billion years ago. It was then that the organisms whose traces are imprinted in these rocks lived on our planet. These organisms were extremely primitive, they were single-celled or colonial, had no skeleton and reproduced simple division cells in two, their cells did not have a formed nucleus. They did not even have an external skeleton - a hard shell of cells - which is why so few traces of that ancient life were preserved in the geological record of the planet.

The evolution of living organisms initially led to the emergence of living beings with a separate cell nucleus and intracellular organelles - ribosomes, mitochondria, etc. They were already characterized by asexual and sexual reproduction. It has been proven that a billion years ago such organisms inhabited the ocean on our planet.

Approximately 600-700 million years ago, the first vertebrates appeared - fish that lived in the world's oceans and seas. The plant kingdom was then represented by numerous algae, both unicellular and multicellular, forming, as now, real underwater forests in shallow waters.

The emergence of living creatures onto land was hindered by the fact that there was very little oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere, until the Cambrian period. Because of this, the planet lacked an ozone layer (the upper layer of the atmosphere, consisting of triatomic oxygen molecules and individual oxygen atoms), which absorbs hard cosmic radiation. The fact is that quanta of hard electromagnetic radiation have very high energy and, striking organic molecules, easily destroy them, being absorbed and not reaching the surface of the planet. A layer of water 2-3 m thick can absorb hard radiation quanta no worse than the ozone layer. That is why in the first stages of evolution life was only in the seas and oceans and was in no hurry to come to land. During the absorption of electromagnetic radiation and photosynthesis of algae, free oxygen gradually accumulated in the hydrosphere and atmosphere.

About 500 million years ago, living organisms appeared on land. On land, the evolution of living beings occurred at a faster pace. Among animals, arthropods first conquered land. Of the vertebrates, lungfish were the first to reach land, from which amphibians evolved. Amphibians, in turn, gave rise to reptiles, from which birds and, in the Cretaceous period - about 70 million years ago - mammals. Man belongs to the class of mammals (order of primates, family of hominids - anthropoids).

The first people, according to the latest scientific data, lived in Africa about 3 million years ago. They walked upright on two legs, had a foot no different from the foot of a modern person, and fairly developed hands with a thumb spaced apart, like a modern person; could make articulate sounds, use fire and make primitive tools by breaking stones and bones. As living organisms evolved, biological diversity increased, metabolism intensified, reproduction mechanisms improved, animal behavior became more complex and life cycles plants. At the same time, food chains lengthened, thanks to which, once captured by living beings from the external environment, atoms chemical elements and energy, did not return to the external environment for longer.

Of course, as evolution progressed, the habitat of living organisms changed, as well as the rate of its change. Over the last billion years, the oxygen content in the atmosphere has increased from 1% to 21%. At the same time, the content in the Earth’s atmosphere sharply decreased. carbon dioxide- up to 0.3%. Scientists have found that the current composition of the Earth's atmosphere is created and maintained by living organisms.

The balance of carbon dioxide between the atmosphere, ocean, soil and living organisms is maintained by millions of species of living organisms. If it is violated, the carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere will increase sharply, and the so-called Greenhouse effect, and the Earth's atmosphere will begin to warm up. Earth's ecosystems are factories that maintain this balance. (Scheme borrowed from N.F. Reimers)

If there is no life on Earth, then the state of its atmosphere will return to its oxygen-free state quite soon, literally in a few hundred or thousand years. After all, there is practically no free oxygen in the atmospheres of either Venus or Mars. But there is a lot of carbon dioxide. This is probably how the atmosphere of our planet once was.

Thus, the evolution of life on Earth is not only a biological problem, but also an ecological one. Today, many scientists understand this, including paleontologists who study life in distant geological eras. Only in recent decades has humanity begun to seriously realize the importance for itself. environmental problems. That is why in our time the need for general ecology has arisen. After all, the question is clear - to be or not to be a technocratic civilization on Earth.

Why is it so important and necessary to study nature at the ecosystem level? Because, knowing the laws of the formation and functioning of ecosystems, it is possible to foresee and prevent their destruction as a result of the impact of negative factors on them, to provide for protective measures and, ultimately, to preserve the habitat of humans as a species.

Many processes are common to all levels. Their characteristics established for one level (cellular, organismal) can be highly informative for other levels (population, ecosystem) and, in the same way, the same areas of science may be common to all levels of the organization. But when studying them, different methods, different approaches are used, different units accounting and measurement. Accordingly, the interpretation of the information received at each level has its own characteristics.

Introduction

The main goal of life safety as a science is to protect people in the technosphere from the negative impacts of anthropogenic and natural origin and to achieve comfortable living conditions.

Life safety is the science of comfortable and safe human interaction with the technosphere.

Fundamentals of life safety. Interaction. people and environment

Life activity is daily activity and recreation, a way of human existence.

Habitat is the environment surrounding a person, currently conditioned by a combination of factors (physical, chemical, biological, social) that can have a direct or indirect immediate or remote impact on human activity, his health and offspring.

The main motivation of a person in his interaction with the environment is aimed at solving at least two main tasks:

- meeting your needs for food, water and air;
- creation and use of protection from the negative impacts of the environment.

In the “man - environment” system there is a continuous exchange of flows of matter, energy and information. This occurs in accordance with the law of conservation of life Yu.N. Kurazhkovsky: “Life can exist only in the process of movement of flows of matter, energy and information through a living body.”

Flows of substances, energy and information are of natural and anthropogenic nature; they largely depend on the scale of transformative human activity and on the state of the environment.

By changing the value of any flow from the minimum to the maximum possible value, you can go through a number of characteristic states of interaction in the “person - environment” system:

Comfortable (optimal), when flows correspond to optimal conditions of interaction: create optimal conditions for activity and rest; prerequisites for the manifestation of the highest performance and, as a consequence, productivity; guarantee the preservation of human health and the integrity of the components of the habitat;

- acceptable when flows, affecting humans and the environment, do not have a negative impact on health, but lead to discomfort, reducing the efficiency of human activity. Compliance with the conditions of permissible interaction guarantees the impossibility of the emergence and development of irreversible negative processes in humans and in the environment;
- dangerous when flows exceed permissible levels and have a negative impact on human health, causing disease with prolonged exposure, and/or lead to degradation of the natural environment;
- extremely dangerous, when flows of high levels over a short period of time can cause injury, lead to death, and cause destruction in the natural environment.

Human interaction with the environment can be positive or negative; the nature of the interaction is determined by the flows of substances, energies and information.