Lithosphere pollution. Environmental problems of the lithosphere Internal structure of the Earth

Lithosphere External lithosphere hard shell The Earth, which includes the entire crust of the Earth with part of the Earth's upper mantle and consists of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks. The lower boundary of the lithosphere is unclear and is determined by a sharp decrease in the viscosity of rocks, a change in the speed of propagation of seismic waves and an increase in the electrical conductivity of rocks. The thickness of the lithosphere on continents and under the oceans varies and averages 5100 km, respectively.

Lithosphere structure Feature the upper mantle, its layering, established by geophysical research methods. At a depth of about 100 km under the continents and 50 km under the oceans below the base of the earth's crust is the asthenosphere. This is a layer discovered in 1914 by the German geophysicist B. Gutenberg. In this layer, a sharp decrease in the speed of propagation of elastic vibrations was detected, which is explained by the softening of the substance in it. It is assumed that the substance there is in a solid-liquid state; solid granules are surrounded by a film of melt. Above the asthenosphere, the mantle rocks are in a solid state and, together with the earth's crust, form the lithosphere. Thus, it is believed that the thickness of the lithosphere is km, including the crust up to 75 km on the continents and 10 km under the ocean floor. Below the asthenosphere there is a layer in which the density of the substance increases, which increases the speed of propagation of seismic waves. The layer is named after the Russian scientist B.B. Golitsin, who first pointed out its existence. It is thought to be composed of ultra-dense varieties of silica and silicates. The upper part of the earth's crust, constantly modified under the influence of mechanical and chemical influences of weather and climatic factors, plants and animals, is separated into a separate layer called the weathering crust. The structure of the lithosphere A characteristic feature of the upper mantle is its layering, established by geophysical research methods. At a depth of about 100 km under the continents and 50 km under the oceans below the base of the earth's crust is the asthenosphere. This is a layer discovered in 1914 by the German geophysicist B. Gutenberg. In this layer, a sharp decrease in the speed of propagation of elastic vibrations was detected, which is explained by the softening of the substance in it. It is assumed that the substance there is in a solid-liquid state; solid granules are surrounded by a film of melt. Above the asthenosphere, the mantle rocks are in a solid state and, together with the earth's crust, form the lithosphere. Thus, it is believed that the thickness of the lithosphere is km, including the crust up to 75 km on the continents and 10 km under the ocean floor. Below the asthenosphere there is a layer in which the density of the substance increases, which increases the speed of propagation of seismic waves. The layer is named after the Russian scientist B.B. Golitsin, who first pointed out its existence. It is believed to be composed of ultra-dense varieties of silica and silicates. The upper part of the earth's crust, constantly modified under the influence of mechanical and chemical influences of weather and climatic factors, plants and animals, is separated into a separate layer called the weathering crust.

Human impact on the lithosphere Man intensively impacts the upper part of the Earth's solid shell. This impact mainly affects the upper fertile layer of the lithosphere, the soil, thanks to which humanity meets the bulk of its food needs. Fertile lands are classified as conditionally renewable resources, but the time required for their restoration, i.e., the formation of a fertile layer, can be hundreds or even thousands of years. Under normal conditions natural conditions 1 cm thick fertile soil is formed over the years. The process is significantly accelerated with optimal agricultural technology, but even under these conditions, it takes at least 40 years to create 1 cm of fertile layer. On our planet, about 10% of the land is cultivated as arable land. At the beginning of the new millennium, humanity will likely move closer to fully realizing all potential land resources. Almost the entire area used for agricultural crops has been developed since ancient times. Rural intensification economic activity humans and, above all, chemicalization cause changes in the established processes of transformation of substances and energy in nature. Significant losses of substances, such as nitrogen, occur as a result of their volatilization from the soil and leaching. By the beginning of the new millennium, the expected loss of nitrogen, which is part of fertilizers, on the planet amounted to more than 40 million tons/year. Enriching the biosphere with nitrogen through fertilizers is dangerous, as it leads to the accumulation of toxic nitrogen-containing organic compounds. Damage to soil fertility is caused by unregulated rainfall and floods, irregular grazing, plowing of virgin and fallow lands, carried out without taking into account possible erosion.

Significant contamination of the fertile soil layer and alienation of agricultural land is caused by the storage and (or) burial of industrial and domestic solid waste. The bulk of solid waste is generated at enterprises in the following industries: mining and mining chemical industries (dumps, slag, “tailings”); ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy (slag, sludge, dust, etc.); metalworking industries (waste, shavings, defective products); forestry and woodworking industry (logging waste, sawdust, shavings); energy thermal power plants (ash, slag); chemical and related industries (sludge, phosphogypsum, slag, cullet, plastics, rubber, etc.); food industry (bones, wool, etc.); light and textile industries.

Solid and toxic waste The modern period of production development is characterized by an increasing volume and variety of final and intermediate products, an increase in the volume of natural resources involved in production activities, an increase in the quantity and variety of waste disposed of environment. The volume of mineral extraction in our country practically doubles every 10 years, but at the same time no more than 5% of the extracted raw materials goes into finished products, while the overall coefficient of human economic activity is 1-2%. The rest of the mass - 95% - returns to the natural environment in the form of waste, polluting it. In Russia alone, 4.5 billion tons of production and consumption waste are stored annually on the surface of the earth. The total amount of accumulated waste is 50 billion tons, and more than 250 thousand hectares are used for storage land areas. Toxic waste, which can contain toxic and harmful substances tens and hundreds of times more than permissible standards, poses a great threat to the environment and human health. According to academician B.N. Laskorin, their number in industrialized countries already in 1995 exceeded 30 billion tons by absolutely dry mass. IN Russian Federation 76 million tons of hazardous industrial waste are generated annually.

All this confirms the conclusions of scientists that the main reason for the negative impact on the environment is not so much the growth of production, but the lack of comprehensive processing of minerals, as well as waste disposal. IN different countries The waste removal and recycling system developed differently. The level of this system was determined by the level of household and technological culture. Long period of pollution natural environment household and industrial waste was local in nature. Natural dispersion and chemical decomposition of waste was sufficient to natural systems as a result of self-purification processes, they were completely freed from pollutants. Until the 70s of the current century, due to the lack of effective means of recycling industrial waste, methods of storing them in city landfills along with household waste or in specialized landfills that had a primitive arrangement were widespread, which causes environmental pollution. Solid waste includes lump-like, dusty , pasty waste generated during production and consumption, as well as waste collected by treatment facilities during emissions into the atmosphere and discharges into water bodies. This also includes liquid waste that is prohibited from being accepted into the sewerage network and treatment plants.

For practical purposes, waste classification is most often used according to the place of its generation, while distinguishing waste and secondary resources. Since waste is generated as a result of production activities and during consumption, they are accordingly divided into production and consumption waste. Production waste is the remains of raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, chemical compounds, formed during the production of products or performance of work and which have lost completely or partially their original properties. Consumer waste is products and materials that have lost, in whole or in part, their consumer properties as a result of physical or moral wear and tear and human activity. Among the classification features important has the degree of impact of waste on the environment. Harmful (toxic) waste includes waste that causes harmful effects on the environment, polluting, poisoning and destroying it, creating a danger to living organisms. Toxic waste is waste that contains or is contaminated with materials of such a nature, in such quantities or in such concentrations that they pose a hazard to human health and the natural environment.

Radioactive waste Radioactive waste (RAW) waste containing radioactive chemical elements and having no practical value. According to the Russian “Law on the Use of Atomic Energy” (170-FZ dated November 21, 1995), radioactive waste (RAW) is nuclear materials and radioactive substances, the further use of which is not envisaged. According to Russian legislation, the import of radioactive waste into the country is prohibited. They are often products of nuclear processes such as nuclear fission. Most of the radioactive waste consists of so-called “low-level waste”, which has low radioactivity per unit mass or volume. This type of waste includes, for example, used protective clothing, which is slightly contaminated, but still poses a risk of radioactive contamination of the body through the pores of the skin, respiratory tract, water or food. radioactive chemical elements nuclear fission respiratory tract water

Disposal of radioactive waste The choice of a place (site) for burial or storage of radioactive waste depends on a number of factors: economic, legal, socio-political and natural. A special role is given to the geological environment - the last and most important barrier to protect the biosphere from radiation hazardous objects.5-7 The disposal site should be surrounded by an exclusion zone in which the appearance of radionuclides is allowed, but outside its boundaries the activity never reaches a dangerous level. Foreign objects can be located no closer than 3 zone radii from the disposal point. On the surface this zone is called a sanitary protection zone, and underground it is an alienated block mountain range. The alienated block must be removed from the sphere of human activity for the period of decay of all radionuclides, therefore it must be located outside the mineral deposits, as well as outside the zone of active water exchange. Engineering measures carried out in preparation for waste disposal must ensure the required volume and density of radioactive waste disposal, the operation of safety and supervision systems, including long-term control of temperature, pressure and activity at the disposal site and the alienated block, as well as the migration of radioactive substances throughout the mountain range .

Garbage civilization In connection with the growing population of the Earth, the growth industrial production, the problem of accumulation of household waste becomes more complex. For each resident of Moscow, on average, a kg of garbage is generated per year, per resident of the countries Western Europe– kg, USA – kg. Each city dweller in the United States throws away an average of 80 kg of paper, 250 metal drink cans, and 400 bottles per year. Waste in city landfills, seeping into the soil, pollutes groundwater. In the United States, more than 200 million tons of household waste accumulate annually, half of which is disposed of in suburban landfills. American scientists have found that only in the northern part Pacific Ocean in the early 80s, millions of plastic bags, 35 million plastic and 70 million glass bottles, various other plastic products, 5 million old shoes were floating around. It is no coincidence that in the West, in relation to our time, the term “garbage civilization” is sometimes used.

The top ten most polluted cities on Earth include several large settlements in China and India, cities in Peru and Zambia, as well as Dzerzhinsk and Norilsk in Russia. The disadvantaged areas included, among others, the Ukrainian Chernobyl and the Azerbaijani Sumgayit. As a rule, heavy industry is the cause of land pollution. In India, for example, there are a huge number of chrome processing industries, and the Chinese provinces of Linfen and Tianjin are characterized by a huge concentration of sulfur in the air. Residents of the Peruvian city of La Roja have been exposed to toxic emissions from a local plant for a long time, and 99 percent of local children are exposed to serious illnesses due to high lead levels in the blood. Ukrainian Chernobyl is infamous terrible disaster which occurred on April 26, 1986, when the fourth power unit of a local nuclear power plant exploded, and Sumgayit in Azerbaijan is a large industrial center with developing metallurgy, mechanical engineering and a number of other vital industries. Russian Dzerzhinsk until completion cold war was the largest center for the production of chemical weapons, and in the Norilsk region there is still the world's largest smelting complex heavy metals. Life expectancy in these cities sometimes reaches 42 years for men and 47 years for women.

Land reclamation One of the most important areas in the field of nature conservation is the reclamation of lands disturbed as a result of human industrial activity and their return for further use. A particularly large amount of agricultural and forest land is disturbed as a result of open-pit mining. The purpose of reclamation is to bring lands into a state suitable for use in the interests of agriculture, forestry and water management, civil and road construction. Reclamation issues are resolved for each quarry, taking into account geological, mining, technological and economic factors. Mining-technical reclamation involves the delivery of land to users for subsequent biological reclamation and should be provided for during design and during operation no later than within a year after the end of development of the deposit. The composition of mining and technical land reclamation includes: – removal of fertile soil from areas allocated for mining operations and its storage in temporary dumps; – planning of overburden dumps in order to form areas convenient for reclamation and construction of access roads, drainage and other reclamation measures; – backfilling of fertile soil layer onto the reclaimed surface and its leveling and other engineering and technical solutions. Mining technical reclamation of lands disturbed by open-pit mining is carried out by organizations that develop deposits on their own and at their own expense. Reclamation costs are included in the estimate for field development.

Sources of soil pollution can be classified as follows:

Residential buildings and communal services
enterprises (comprising
pollutants from this
source categories predominate
household waste, food waste,
construction waste, waste
heating systems that came to
disrepair of household items
household items, etc.);

Industrial enterprises (in
solid and liquid industrial
waste is constantly present
substances that can cause
toxic effects on living things
organisms, including plants);
Transport (when internal engines are running
combustion intensely releases nitrogen oxides,
lead, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, soot and
other substances deposited on the surface
Earth or absorbed by plants. IN
in the latter case, these substances also fall
into the soil and are involved in the cycle associated with
food chains);

Agriculture (soil pollution in agriculture occurs due to the introduction of huge quantities of mineral fertilizers and poisons

Agriculture (soil pollution in agriculture occurs
due to the introduction of huge quantities of mineral fertilizers and
pesticides. It is known that in the composition of some pesticides
contains mercury).

Establishment of maximum permissible concentrations of harmful substances in
soil is currently still at the very beginning of development. MPC
established for approximately 50 harmful substances, mainly
pesticides used to protect plants from pests and
diseases. However, the soil is not
belongs to those environments
which directly
affect health
man, while the air
and water along with
polluters
consumed alive
organisms.

The adverse effects of soil pollutants occur through the trophic chain. Therefore, in practice, to assess the degree of soil contamination

The adverse effects of soil pollutants manifest themselves through
trophic chain. Therefore, in practice, to assess the degree of pollution
soil, two indicators are used:
Maximum permissible
concentration in soil (MPC),
mg/kg;
Allowable residuals
quantity (DOC), mg/kg
masses of vegetation. So,
for chlorophos the MPC is 1.0
mg/kg, DOC=2.0 mg/kg. For
lead MPC=32 mg/kg, MPC in
meat products is
0.5 mg/kg.

Sanitary control of soil pollution in cities is carried out by the Sanitary and Epidemiological Service. Transporters are also under her control.

Sanitary control of soil pollution in urban areas is carried out
Sanitary and Epidemiological Service. It also controls waste transportation,
coordination of storage, burial and processing sites.
The soil belongs to three-phase systems, however, the physical and chemical processes
flowing in the soil are extremely slowed down, and air and water dissolved in the soil
do not have a significant accelerating effect on the course of these processes.
Therefore, the self-purification of the soil, in comparison with the self-purification of the atmosphere and
hydrosphere occurs very slowly. According to the intensity of self-purification, these
components of the biosphere are located in the following sequence: atmosphere -
hydrosphere - lithosphere. As a result, harmful substances in the soil gradually
accumulate and become a threat to humans over time. Self-purification of soil in
can mainly occur only when contaminated with organic waste, which
are subject to biochemical oxidation by microorganisms. At the same time heavy
metals and their salts gradually accumulate in the soil and can only be lowered into more
deep layers. However, with deep plowing of the soil, they may again end up on
surfaces and enter the food chain.

Thus, intense
industrial development
production leads to growth
industrial waste, which
combined with household
waste significantly affect
chemical composition of the soil, causing
deterioration
its qualities.

Soil pollution in Novosibirsk
Hazardous biological waste contaminated the land
agricultural purposes livestock farms
V Novosibirsk region, reported to Information
agency "Svetich" in the Office of Rosselkhoznadzor for NSO.
In 2013, inspectors of the Rosselkhoznadzor Office for
Novosibirsk region within the framework of supervisory activities for
compliance with the requirements of land legislation were
8 pig-breeding complexes and 3 farms were inspected,
engaged in raising cattle. IN
places for storing pig manure and draining waste
life activity of cattle on land plots
samples were taken for agricultural purposes
soil. According to the results of laboratory tests in 29
soil samples revealed an excess of permissible standards
according to the content of enterococci, in 25 samples - according to the content
coli. In addition, 27 samples revealed
soil alkalization, in 2 samples an excess was found
maximum permissible concentration for zinc content.

Presentation on the discipline: “Ecology” on the topic: “ Ecological problems lithosphere. Soil protection and rational use of subsoil" Prepared by: student of group 403 Oleynikov V.A. Ilyichevsk - 2013 Contents: Introduction 1. General concept about the lithosphere. 2. Environmental problems of the lithosphere: - erosion; - pollution; - secondary salinization and waterlogging; - alienation of lands. 3. Measures for soil protection. 4. Rational use of subsoil. Conclusion Introduction The lithosphere is the environment of all mineral resources, one of the main objects of anthropogenic activity (components of the natural environment), through significant changes, which is developing global environmental crisis. In the upper part of the continental crust there are developed soils, the importance of which for humans is difficult to overestimate. 1. General concept of the lithosphere The lithosphere is the outer shell of the “solid” Earth, located below the atmosphere by the asthenosphere. and hydrosphere The thickness of the lithosphere varies from 50 km (under the oceans) to 100 km (under the continents). In its composition Earth's crust and the substrate that makes up the upper mantle. 2. Environmental problems of the lithosphere Land alienation Erosion Pollution Secondary salinization and waterlogging Erosion Soil erosion is the destruction and removal of the upper most fertile horizons and underlying rocks by the wind (wind erosion) or water flows (water erosion). Lands that have been destroyed by erosion are called eroded. Erosion processes also include technical agricultural erosion (land destruction), military erosion (craters, trenches), and irrigation erosion (soil destruction when laying canals and violating irrigation standards). Pollution Soil pollution is the introduction into the soil of new (uncharacteristic for it) physical, chemical agents, exceeding their concentrations or concentrations of the natural average long-term level during the period of time under consideration. Main soil pollutants: - pesticides (toxic chemicals); - mineral fertilizers; - waste production; - gas and smoke emissions; - oil and petroleum products. 3. Measures for soil protection Removal and preservation of the soil layer Anti-erosion measures The soil layer is removed during all work that disturbs it or reduces its properties (construction work, laying communication lines, mining, etc.). The removed soil layer is used for reclamation of disturbed lands. It can be folded into temporary dumps (cavaliers). - organization of surface water flow; - creation of a stable turf cover of perennial grasses (or shrubs); - use of anti-erosion materials and structures (geosynthetic materials, biomats, geomats); - planting forest strips, etc. Reclamation (improvement) of contaminated soils, carrying out measures to clean up pollutants (or reduce the degree of pollution). To restore soils contaminated with metals, solutions of lime and phosphates with added organic substances are used. The method is based on converting dissolved forms of metals into sparingly soluble ones. 4. Rational use of subsoil - ensuring the completeness of geological study, rational integrated use and protection of subsoil; - conducting state examination and state accounting of mineral reserves, as well as subsoil areas used for purposes not related to mining; - ensuring the most complete extraction from the subsoil of reserves of the main and co-occurring minerals and associated components; - protection of mineral deposits from flooding, watering, fires and other factors that reduce the quality of minerals and the industrial value of deposits or complicate their development; - prevention of subsoil pollution during work related to the use of subsoil, especially during underground storage of oil, gas or other substances and materials, burial of harmful substances and production waste, and wastewater discharge; - preventing the accumulation of industrial and domestic waste in catchment areas and in areas of groundwater used for drinking or industrial water supply. Conclusion Due to the increasing scale of anthropogenic impact (human economic activity), especially in the last century, the balance in the biosphere is being disrupted, which can lead to irreversible processes and raise the question of the possibility of life on the planet.

RUSSIAN ECONOMIC
UNIVERSITY named after G. V. PLEKHANOV
Discipline
"Ecology"
LECTURE TOPIC: LITHOSPHERE.
Ecological problems.
AUTHOR: Ph.D., Associate Professor. Litvishko V.S.

Structure of material on the topic
1. Formation of the Earth.
2. Internal structure Earth.
3. Lithosphere, lithospheric plates.
4. Composition and types of the earth's crust.
5. Soil pollution, sources
pollution.
3

Formation of the Earth

#
# Carried out
when the Earth warms up due to decay
radioactive elements (uranium, thorium, potassium, etc.):
U(235/92) + n (1/0) = Ba(144/56)+ Kr(89/36)+3n(1/0)
then there is a chain reaction
The decay of 1 gram of U(235/92) releases 7.5x10^7 kJ
# Accompanied by differentiation of substance
(division into concentric layers - geosphere):
-light, fusible – ABOVE
-heavy, refractory – BELOW

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH Most of the information about the deep structure of the Earth was obtained by indirect geophysical methods

Based on the study of physical fields:
gravitational, magnetic, electrical,
elastic vibrations (seismic, or
acoustic), thermal (heat),
nuclear radiation (radiation).
The information obtained allows us to determine
location of geological structures,
ore bodies, aquifers, etc.,

Internal structure of the Earth

# EARTH'S CRUST (formed from the upper mantle during cooling
magma)
- oceanic 5-7 km
- mainland 30-35 km
MOHOROVICICH SURFACE (Moho section), 1200 deg
# MANTLE
- upper 30-670 km (400 km under the mainland and 100-150 km under
ocean - ASTHENOSPHERE - layer that performs the function of “lubricant”
for rigid lithospheric plates)
GOLICINE LAYER
- lower 670-2900 km
GUTENBERG LAYER, 3500 deg.
# CORE
- external (2900-5100 km) liquid, 4000 degrees
- internal (5100-6378 km), from 5000 to 10000 degrees.

Internal structure of the Earth

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Earth's crust:
- external hard
shell;
- density 2.9 g/cm3;
-average power – 35 km
At a depth of 1-2 km, the temperature gradient is 12°C
at 1 km
At a depth of 2 to 5 km, the temperature gradient
16°C per 1 km
at a depth of 12 km. the gradient is 20°C/km, and
the temperature is 212°C.

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Mantle:
-t up to 3500°C;
- density 3.3-5.5 g/cm3;
-lower mantle –
crystalline
- the upper one is less dense and
plastic

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Core:
- t up to 10,000°С - in the center
- density 10-13.6 g/cm3
- pressure up to 3 million atm – in the center
-consists of iron alloys and
nickel;
-inner core is solid,
external – liquid
(molten)

Lithosphere (stone+sphere),
– top stone shell Lands, including
itself the entire earth's crust and
upper part of the mantle
asthenosphere (Barrel)

As part of the earth's crust
(0.5% of Earth's mass)
There are three main layers:
1) “sedimentary”,
2) “granite”,
3) “basalt

SEDIMENTARY LAYER

1. Chemical rocks (limestones,
gypsum, dolomite, brown iron ore,
rock salt, bauxite,
phosphorites)
2.Organogenic rocks
(shell rock, chalk, tripoli, peat,
coal, oil shale, oil)
3. Clastic rocks (gravel,
sands, clays, pebbles)
4.Volcanic rocks (pumice,
tuff)
5.Mixed rocks (calcareous
sandstone, marl)

GRANITE LAYER – SIAL (Si+Al)

Mineral composition:
# feldspars (acidic plagioclase and
potassium feldspar) - 60-65%;
# quartz - 25-30%;
# dark-colored minerals (biotite, rare
hornblende) - 5-10%

BASALT LAYER-SIMA (Si+Mg)

Mineral
compound. Main
the mass consists of
microlite
plagioclase,
clinopyroxene,
magnetite or
titanomagnetite, and
also volcanic glass.

TYPES OF THE EARTH'S CRUST
Continental crust (44% of surface
Earth) consists of layers:
– sedimentary (up to 20 km)
- granite (up to 25 km, V=6 km/sec, 3 billion)
-basalt (up to 25 km, V=7km/sec)
Boundary between granite and basalt - CONRAD surface
Total thickness 35-50 km, under mountains up to 78 km

TYPES OF THE EARTH'S CRUST
The oceanic crust (56% of the Earth's surface) consists of:
- sedimentary layer (age 100 million years)
-basalt (thickness no more
2km,V=7km/sec)
Total capacity 5-10 km

Structure of the earth's crust
The lower boundary of the earth's crust is
border of Mohorovicic (Moho),
at a depth of 7 to 30 km, where
increase abruptly
seismic wave speeds
Upper limit - determined
boundary with the atmosphere and bottom
World Ocean

(Clarks):
- oxygen – about 47%,
- silicon – 30%,
- aluminum – 8%,
- iron – 5%,
- calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium – 23% each.
The share of these eight elements
accounts for 99% of the mass of the earth's crust

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH'S CRUST

Elements with clarke 0.01-0.0001
rare
Scattered-rare elements with
poor ability to concentrate
With a clarke of less than 0.01 - microelements

Distribution of elements in the earth's crust

Law of Universal Dispersion
Fersman's law - with atomic complexity
nuclei (its weighting) clarke elements
decrease
The earth's crust is dominated by elements with
even serial numbers
Among neighboring elements, even ones always have
clarks are higher than those of the odd ones (Italian Oddo,
America Garkis)

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH'S CRUST

LITHOSPHERIC PLATES
Isostanium - equilibrium state
earth's crust, in which less
dense earth's crust (medium
density 2.9 g/cm³) “floats” in
denser layer of the upper mantle
- asthenosphere (average density
3.3 g/cm³), obeying the law
Archimedes.

The lithosphere is divided by narrow and
active zones (deep
faults) for several
large blocks or
lithospheric plates, which
move in the asthenosphere
(plastic layer of the top
mantle) relative to each other
at a rate of 2-3 cm per year

Plate boundaries

Clash of continental
lithospheric plates

About 200 million years ago there was
single supercontinent - Pangea

The outlines of the continents appear
compatible

Signs of dynamic
changes in the lithosphere are
volcanoes and earthquakes

Earthquakes - underground shocks
and vibrations of the earth's surface.
They occur when, due to
lithosphere movements for a long time
elastic accumulated in it
voltages exceed the limit
elasticity and occurs quickly, almost
instantaneous displacement of large masses
lithosphere relative to each other,
usually with the formation of ruptures

Similar documents

Sources of soil pollution can be classified as follows:

Agriculture (soil pollution in agriculture occurs due to the introduction of huge quantities of mineral fertilizers and poisons

The adverse effects of soil pollutants occur through the trophic chain. Therefore, in practice, to assess the degree of soil contamination

Sanitary control of soil pollution in cities is carried out by the Sanitary and Epidemiological Service. Transporters are also under her control.

Formation of the Earth

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH Most of the information about the deep structure of the Earth was obtained by indirect geophysical methods

Internal structure of the Earth

Internal structure of the Earth

Internal structure of the Earth

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

SEDIMENTARY LAYER

GRANITE LAYER – SIAL (Si+Al)

BASALT LAYER-SIMA (Si+Mg)

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH'S CRUST

Distribution of elements in the earth's crust

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE EARTH'S CRUST