History of China in 10 volumes. The history of China from ancient times to the beginning of the 21st century. in ten volumes

On Friday November 10, 2017 in the Moscow House-boarding house of veterans of the Russian Academy of Sciences, a presentation of the unique historical scientific work of Russian sinologists "History of China from ancient times to the beginning of the XXI century" was held, edited by Acad. S.L. Tikhvinsky... All 10 volumes, each with 1000 or more pages, were presented to the participants of the event.

Opening the presentation, Sergei Luzyanin, Director of the RAS Institute for Far Eastern Studies, stressed that the long-term work of Russian historians-sinologists was crowned with complete success. According to him, this difficult but very productive work has borne good fruit thanks to the work of a large team of scientists working in various research institutes and universities in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Novosibirsk.

He also noted the huge contribution of editors and printers of the Nauka - Eastern Literature publishing house.

At the same time, S. Luzyanin highlighted the role in the preparation and publication of this large-scale work of Academician S.L. Tikhvinsky, a well-known Russian sinologist, author of numerous historical works about China, an honored diplomatic worker who worked in Beijing and personally presented documents on the recognition by the Soviet Union of the People's Republic of China and the establishment of diplomatic relations with it.

S.L. Tikhvinsky was the chief editor of this gigantic 10-volume historical encyclopedia and the head of the editorial board. At the presentation, the Russian academician, who turned 99 two months ago, gave a detailed description of each volume of this historical encyclopedia, not forgetting to highly appreciate the contribution of each executive editor who was responsible for the preparation and publication of individual volumes of the History of China.

Dmitry Mezentsev, Chairman of the Russian-Chinese Friendship Society, member of the Federation Council, in turn stressed that the release of this remarkable work of Russian Sinologists has great importance for Russian-Chinese relations. According to him, the presentation of the 10-volume edition became "an event in modern Russian-Chinese relations." He called Sergei Leonidovich Tikhvinsky a unique person, a man of amazing fate, a great scientist and diplomat, whose efforts and work were always aimed exclusively at ensuring the interests of his country.

Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of China to Russia Li Hui congratulated Russian scientists and Academician S.L. Tikhvinsky with the completion of work on the multivolume history of his country. He said that such selfless work was a wonderful contribution to the foundation of Russian-Chinese relations of comprehensive partnership and strategic interaction.

Andrei Kulik, director of the First Asia Department of the Russian Foreign Ministry, called the published 10-volume History of China an amazing educational project and a remarkable event in international Sinology. "The history of China," he stressed, "is constantly present in our diplomatic work." He especially noted the work of scientists, editors, publishers, printers, calling their contribution "the organizational feats of Russian Sinologists."

Dmitry Korotkov, Acting Director of the Nauka Publishing House, spoke in detail about the work of editors, printers, and publishers who faced a gigantic amount of information that had to be translated on paper in conditions of insufficient funding for the project.

The executive editors of individual volumes of the History of China spoke about the difficulties in work and overcoming problems: Doctor of History, Head of the Center for the Study of the Contemporary History of China and its Relations with Russia N.L. Mamaeva, Doctor of History , senior researcher at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences A.Sh. Kabyrdaev, Ph.D. Head of the Center for Political Research and Forecasts A.V. Vinogradov, Doctor of History, Chief Researcher, IFES RAS Yu.M. Galenovich, Doctor of History, Chief Researcher, IFES RAS L.S. Fractures. Representatives of the Nauka publishing house told about the complexities of the polygraphic embodiment of this unique work.

It should be said that research on the history of a neighboring country of this magnitude has been undertaken in Russia for the first time. In the 20-30s of the last century, the first essays on the history of China appeared in our country. Then there appeared textbooks on the history of this country for universities, scientific works on the history of China, fundamental and popular books on the history of China began to be published. But in a collected, systematized form such a complex scientific work in Russian is published for the first time. Its authors, and these are dozens of scientists, processed a huge array of original materials, works of Chinese, Soviet and Russian Sinologists. They tried to fit the 5 thousand-year period of the development of Chinese civilization into 10 volumes. It turned out to be a daunting task, but it was implemented.

There is only one historical work in the world with which the new Russian "History of China" can compete. This is a 15-volume history of China that is being published in Cambridge. However, the Cambridge story is not yet finished, 13 volumes have been released so far, and work on it is still ongoing.

Russian sinologists are also not going to stop there. It is logical to assume that the Russian historical science about the development of Chinese civilization will be replenished with additional volumes.

• Presentation of the ten-volume "History of China from ancient times to the beginning of the XXI century" // Journal "China", 2017-11-13.
• 俄文版 宏 篇 巨著 《中国 历史》 在 莫斯科 发行 // Sputnik (卫星 社) 所有 权利 均受 保护, 09:00 2017 年 11 月 18 日

In 2013, the first volumes of a large-scale scientific project of Russian Sinology - the 10-volume "History of China from Ancient Times to the Beginning of the 21st Century", were published.In the summer of 2014, the China Department of the Institute of Oriental Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences, discussed the second volume, published under the editorship of L.S. Perelomov and dedicated to the history of China in the 5th century. BC. - III century. n. e.

The full title of this volume: History of China from ancient times to the beginning of the XXI century: In ten volumes. T. II: The era of Zhangguo, Qin and Han (V century BC - III century AD) / Ch. ed. S. L. Tikhvinsky; Resp. ed. volumes by L. S. Perelomov; Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of the Far East. - M .: Nauka - Vostochnaya Literatura, 2013 .-- 687 p.

The discussion was very lively and very sharp.

The discussion materials of the second volume of "History of China" were published in the following edition: Society and State in China. T. XLIV, part 2 / Edited by A.I. Kobzev et al. - M .: Institute of Oriental Studies, Russian Academy of Sciences, 2014. - P. 462-615. (Scientific notes of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Department of China. Issue 15).

The same materials are also freely available in the "Reviews" section of the Sinology.ru portal (© Copyright 2009-2014).

Here are some snippets of the discussion:

“A.R. Vyatkin: General impression: this volume is a hack work, it will be difficult for the reader to read and understand it. The project was not thought out and discussed, and the chronological principle was not followed. There are inversions everywhere, inadmissible in such work. There are idiotic fragments, and it would be better to send this volume to waste paper; it is simply indecent to release it. It is seen as a sign of a crisis not only in the Academy of Sciences, but also in sinology ”(OGK. T. XLIV, part 2. P. 608-609).

“A.I. Kobzev:… As an acting professor of two universities with a long pedagogical experience, I can note that students' appeal to such literature is ambivalent. They are able, on the one hand, to naively rewrite and repeat any rubbish from the Internet, since technology allows you not to strain your brains for this, and on the other hand, to dig with the same wonderful technique to the real depths and without hesitation to expose pseudo-authorities, about which colleagues often find it difficult to express impartial judgments. In this case, however, it is clear that the chaotic content in a solid academic package should have a frustrating effect on the average reader and inexperienced student. And the point is not that the creators of the volume are crazy or bearers of "Chinese logic." This is the result of awkward cutting and pasting of old texts using “crooked scissors”. L.S. Perelomov needed to attach to that Confucius, which he did a lot, for which they connected a horse and a quivering doe - Zhanguo with Qin and Han. However, this vivisection was carried out clumsily, since a more skillful master would have taken a different upper boundary of Zhangguo in order to at least formally tie Confucius to this period. It is only incomprehensible why those who do this do not at all think about the consequences of their spitting into eternity. All the same Internet and ubiquitous students will provide them with Herostratus fame for a long time, if not forever ”(OGK. T. XLIV, part 2. P. 612).

"S.V. Dmitriev. … Unfortunately, lately I have come across more and more books that give the impression that the author did not expect that they would be read. It should never be like this. We can write nonsense if we believe in it; but not to release things under the academic stamp that no one believes in. On the basis of such a volume, it is easy to conclude that Russian Sinology is a collection of senile people ... ”(OGK. T. XLIV, part 2. P. 613).

Surprisingly, reading such harsh responses did not cause me a negative attitude towards the book under discussion, but gave rise to thoughts of a completely different kind.

First, the lively discussion around this book gives hope for the revitalization of Russian academic sinology in the not too distant future. Why do I think so? Because discussion is the essence of science, and benevolent criticism is the norm scientific life... As long as there is a discussion, as long as there is an adequate reaction from colleagues and as long as there is a desire to propose a new reasoned version of reading the old problem - until then the humanities will also live. Stormy scientific discussions are one of the indicators of an active and "healthy" scientific life.

As for the harsh philippics addressed to the editor of this volume, they are, from my point of view, a purely subjective and controversial opinion, which undoubtedly deserves attention, but which does not imply that one should unconditionally agree with it. Our modern empirical world provides examples of such “surreal” paradoxes that the combination of both the horse and the quivering doe in one cultural space does not seem so unreasonable to me. Why not? There is nothing more specific than the periodization of history, but nothing in historical science is as relative as periodization. It all depends on the chosen criterion. And if we are talking about masters, then the choice of the periodization criterion is their full right. Periodization is always, to a certain extent, mythological, since only in the mythological space can something that is in constant motion be stopped. If we are talking about markers that mark the direction of the historical process, then, of course, there are always options.

And, of course, I just cannot agree with the proposal to burn the circulation of this book (or "destroy", as suggested by some participants in the discussion: OGK. T. XLIV, part 2. S. 608, 613). Books cannot be destroyed. Even the bad ones. And even more so books, which are a very worthy part of the history of Russian science. It seems to me that this work should be treated exactly like that - as a work reflecting the history of Russian Sinology. Leonard Sergeevich Perelomov - the editor of this volume and one of its authors - made an undoubted and very significant contribution to the history of Russian Sinology, as well as other respected authors of the volume, who can rightfully be called, as Professor K.M. Tertitsky, high-level professionals (OGK. T. XLIV, part 2. S. 603). I am sure that without their work, on which we grew up, there would be no us and this heated discussion. Therefore, I consider it necessary to say thanks to Professor L.S. Perelomov for this work. In this book, L.S. Perelomov presented the results of his many years of research, as well as the research of his colleagues. Research, which, perhaps, the entire last quarter of the last century was highly appreciated not only in the domestic, but also in the international professional community. Even at the beginning of the 21st century, they were an indicator, especially for Chinese Sinologists and Confucianists, of the high level of development of Russian Sinology.

Yes, the authors of this volume, as well as its editor, did not carry out the main research yesterday, and maybe not even the day before yesterday, but this was known long before the implementation of this project. Therefore, I would attribute most of the harsh criticism to the editor and authors to the general crisis in Russian Sinology, primarily to the crisis phenomena in the organization of our scientific life. And the discussion of this volume, by the way, led the discussion to precisely this, from my point of view, the main problem of Russian Sinology. Professor A.I. Kobzev, for example, quite accurately pointed out the organizational unwillingness of modern Russian Sinology to tackle such grandiose scientific projects and suggested reformatting the structure of academic orientalist institutes (OGK. T. XLIV, part 2. P. 609).

I am most impressed by some of the assessments of Professor M.Yu. Ulyanov, sounded during the discussion of the second volume of "History of China":

“The publication of this volume is a significant event in the scientific life of our country.

In the near future, the publication of just a 10-volume book in the presence of the already published 6-volume encyclopedia “Spiritual Culture of China” and a large number of sources translated into Russian will create a new information space in Sinology that needs to be comprehended ...

The authors and editorial board, most likely, strove to create a popular and publicly accessible scientific publication. If we assume that the target audience is the "mass reader", then the goal has been achieved - in his hands will be an impressive volume written by specialists, not burdened with a scientific apparatus, but abundantly supplied with illustrations, which tells about the most diverse aspects of the history and culture of ancient China ...

… It is to be expected that the discussion of this and other volumes will generate a "stream of constructive criticism" and "an avalanche of valuable comments." And who knows, maybe after this a new stage in the development of Russian sinology will begin. Be that as it may, the authors of the volume should be thanked for their many years of work. And let's hope that the publication of this book will push the ancient Sinologists to responsible, systematic and thoughtful work, which will lead to the implementation of scientific projects and the creation of the academic history of Ancient China ”(OGK. T. XLIV, part 2. P. 544, 548) ...

What do we end up with? First, we have the second volume - a serious author's monograph on the history of China in the 5th century. BC. - III century. n. e. Secondly, we have 150 pages of critical analysis of this work (OGK. T. XLIV, part 2. S. 462-615). My God, if in my student years they offered me a textbook and detailed criticism to it, I would be just happy! I think this criticism should be published in a separate edition - for use in educational process as a supplement to the second volume. True, in such a separate publication, I categorically do not want to see those fragments in which the authors, in the course of polemics, go beyond the framework of an academic discussion. I understand that anything can happen in the heat of discussion, but why then publish it all? Moreover, I would even agree with such a publication (after all, everyone has the right to their point of view), if it were not for a book that our students will read. It seems to me that we should teach future Sinologists a little differently.

On the other hand, in such a collection of criticism, I would very much like to get acquainted with the assessments expressed by colleagues from the Institute of the Far East of the Russian Academy of Sciences, from the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences (for example, with the opinion of Irina Fedorovna Popova, Yuri Lvovich Krol or their students), from the point of view Boris Grigorievich Doronin and other respected St. Petersburg sinologists.

With this addition, the student will receive a wonderful kit for studying the history of China. And it would be absolutely ideal, if one of the proposals made during the discussion could be realized, is to write a separate monograph reflecting, so to speak, an alternative approach to the most important problems of the history of China in the 5th century. BC. - III century. n. e. Such a three-part set would be the best gift for our students.

So, from my point of view, everything with the history of China is very good.

But with the academic history of China, it seems to me, not very good. Because the creation of a multivolume academic history of China is a problem that, in my opinion, Russian Sinology is not ready to solve today, and for completely objective reasons. Currently, it is unrealistic to create such a story within the framework of a national Russian project. And not because our Sinology is bad, but because, firstly, this story itself is too long and not simple, secondly, because it has many poorly studied passages, thirdly, because it includes a huge number of sources and immense historiography, especially of the last decades, and finally, because at present there is simply no real social order for such a project, implying long-term development with all the obligations of the customer that follow from it.

The multivolume academic history of China is at least an international project. And an attempt at present to implement it within the framework of the national sinological tradition is doomed, as it seems to me, to the same sharp criticism as the one that was voiced in the China Department of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences about the second volume edited by the respected L.S. Perelomova.

To implement such a project, and here I agree with the opinion of A.I. Kobzev, it is possible only with a very serious scientific and organizational approach. I think that for this it is necessary, firstly, to create a special organizational structure (a research center, an experimental and innovative scientific platform - the name is not the essence) in one of the Russian universities. And already on its basis, form a strategy for the implementation of the project, solve the problems of periodization, chronology, vocabulary and personalology (i.e., develop an ideology of content), at the same time selecting personnel and creating small research groups for specific scientific problems. Moreover, such a research platform should have both funding and infrastructure that would allow inviting specialists from all over Russia for a month or a year or two or three.

Secondly, such a structure, as I think, must necessarily have access to international databases so that its researchers, invited specialists and its own students under its control can, so to speak, without leaving the yard to learn the world, that is, to work with relevant sources and historiography both in Russian and in Chinese and European languages. In other words, it is necessary to create an appropriate infrastructure - a free and open informational synological laboratory, including access to electronic bibliographic databases and to full texts domestic, European and Chinese journal articles, monographs and dissertations.

Thirdly, for such a project, it is necessary to specially train personnel by organizing several targeted recruits of students, carrying out specialization literally from the first year and already from the junior years by targeting specific students to solve specific research problems.

Only in this case, I think, in 15-20 years we can really get something that will not cause such harsh criticism. In the meantime, it seems to me that all works, even those labeled "academic", will be of an author's nature and, to one degree or another, will be determined by the priorities of the scientific interests of specific authors, their personal libraries, scientific connections and other subjective factors.

From my point of view, our time is the time of good author's monographs. And this, in general, is not bad. If not for one "but". Why, then, it was necessary to show so many overly harsh sentences to the editor? And this is the second question that the criticism of the second volume of "History of China" makes us think about.

The professional community can only welcome criticism, even very harsh criticism. However, certain fragments of the published discussion made a depressing impression on me, since they clearly go, from my point of view, beyond the academic norm. Perhaps this is the norm of communication that has developed at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences? I don’t know, so I don’t presume to judge my colleagues and qualify their harsh and unreasonable, as it seems to me, passages. I write exclusively for my students - scientific communication has its own laws and rules. It is possible and necessary to criticize the scientific work of colleagues. But! In the course of criticism, you cannot offend a person. You cannot criticize a book and criticize a person. In the course of a scientific discussion, you must not snide at someone who cannot answer you. The rich Russian language provides us with the opportunity to choose a variety of lexical options for expressing feelings and attitudes towards the subject under discussion. But! There are words and phrases that are unacceptable to use in a scientific discussion. In a scientific discussion, one should not stoop to verbal aggression; aggression, even verbal, is not the lot of a scientist.

And further. There are two groups of authors whose criticism should be especially strictly adhered to ethical standards and the principle of goodwill. The first group is those who are still learning. The second is those who taught you, i.e. your teachers.

These rules were the norm where I studied, and I would very much like these rules to remain the norm not only where I work, but also among my fellow Sinologists.

That is why it is completely incomprehensible to me how it is possible at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences to speak sarcastically and in a completely inappropriate context about the hobbies of a colleague who is no longer alive, but who has worked for many years at the same institute, or maybe in the same office. Moreover, he was not an ordinary scientist, but a Teacher with a capital letter, an outstanding researcher and connoisseur of ancient Chinese literature, and a connoisseur of the highest level. In this case, I mean such a wonderful scientist as Igor Samoilovich Lisevich was and remains for many of us.

Of course, I was also unpleasantly struck by individual passages about Leonard Sergeevich Perelomov, a great scientist who, from my point of view, was completely undeservedly offended during this discussion. One thing I can say, this kind of passages cause negative emotions not at all in relation to the esteemed Leonard Sergeevich or his work.

When I was a student, we called our university "school". By the way, one of the wings of the Faculty of Oriental Studies of Leningrad State University in those years was also called a "school". And in this designation there is a deep meaning. The school is a haven of mercy, kindness and the highest ethics. Not said by me, but said very correctly. This higher ethics should be felt by everyone who goes to school, who is involved in university life or scientific and teaching activities. This is what we must teach our students, including through our speech behavior when discussing scientific issues, including through our publications.

Strange as it may seem after all I have said above, but the discussion materials published in the book "Society and State in China" (T. XLIV, Part 2.), I plan to use in classes with freshmen in the discipline "Introduction to Sinology" ... Why? All for the same reason. These materials are a good practical guide for discussing the topic "The norms of professional ethics of a sinologist." The book contains examples of violations of such norms. An analysis of these violations will show students how it is impossible to conduct a scientific discussion, and, I hope, will contribute to the formation of their proper attitude not only to sinology, but also to people.

Respectfully,

S.V. Filonov, Doctor of Historical Sciences,

head of the Center for Sinological Research, AmSU

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1 HISTORY OF CHINA

2 THE HISTORY OF CHINA FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE BEGINNING OF THE XXI CENTURY In ten volumes Chief Editor Academician of the RAS S.L. Tikhvinsky Main editorial board of Academician RA N M.L. Tit Arenko (Deputy Chief Executive Officer), Candidate of Philological Sciences S.M. A. Nikeeva, Corresponding Member of the RA N V.I. V. Asiliev, academician of the RA N L.P. D erevyanko, academician of RA N B.C. M. Yasnikov, Corresponding Member of the RA N V.V. Namkin, Doctor of Historical Sciences I.F. P opova, academician of RA N [B.L. Riftin \\

3 R O S S I J S K A Z A K A D E M I Z N A U K I ns t t u t s s s r u c o p s HISTORY CHINA FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE BEGINNING OF THE XXI CENTURY Volume III THE TRINITY, JIN, SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN DYNASTIES, SUI, TAN () Editors in charge, Doctor of Historical Sciences I.F. Popova, Doctor of Philology M.E. Kravtsova M O C K V A N a u k a V o c h n a l i te r a t u r

4 UDC 94 (510) BBK 63.3 (5Kit) I90 The publication was carried out with the financial support of the Russian Humanitarian Science Foundation (RHNF), the project History of China from ancient times to the beginning of the XXI century: in 10 volumes / ch. ed. C.J1. Tikhvin ISBN Vol. III: Three Kingdoms, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui, Tang () / otv. ed. I.F. Popova, M.E. Kravtsova; Institute of Oriental Manuscripts RAS. M.: Science East. lit., p. : ill. ISBN (in trans.) The third volume of the "History of China from ancient times to the beginning of the XXI century" covers two global historical periods, each of which played a key role in the history of Chinese civilization in its own way. The first is the so-called period of political fragmentation (or the era of the Six Dynasties), which lasted from the 3rd to the end of the 6th century. During this period, which began after the death of the powerful ancient empire of Han, there was a partial conquest of the country by "small nations" and the movement of the center of national civilization from the basin of the river. Yellow River in southern regions China (south of the Yangtze). At this time, the formation of Taoism as a national religion and the formation of the Chinese Buddhist tradition took place, the mechanism of interaction of the Three teachings (Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism) was formed, which led to religious syncretism, which became one of the most specific phenomena in China and the entire Far East. The second historical period covers the Sui and Tang empires, under which the political and cultural unity of the country was restored and the imperial statehood was established in its qualitatively new version. The Tang era is also associated with the consolidation of the administrative and bureaucratic foundations of the Chinese empire and the "golden age" in many important areas of artistic culture (poetry, visual arts, music and dance). ISBN ISBN (v. 3) Institute of Oriental Manuscripts RAS, 2014 SO Editorial and publishing design. Science Oriental Literature, 2014

5 TO THE READER The great successes of the People's Republic of China over the past decades in the economy, science, technology, culture, sports, and its growing international authority determine the growing interest of the Russian public in modern life and the history of our closest neighbor in the Far East, with which Russian Federation there is a common border of over 4000 km. More or less regular relations between the two states emerged in the middle of the 17th century. Under Peter I, the Orthodox Spiritual Mission was founded in the capital of Qing China, Beijing, whose members, through their labors, helped to familiarize the Russian public with the history, culture and modern life of the inhabitants of the neighboring country. In the second half of the XIX century. started in Russia scientific study China, Chinese language and history began to be taught at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kazan universities and at the Oriental Institute in Vladivostok. The study of China received further development during the years of Soviet power, which was largely facilitated by the good-neighborly policy of our state and the sympathy of the peoples of Russia for the national liberation struggle of the Chinese people, who suffered from feudal-militaristic oppression, arbitrariness and military aggression of the imperialist powers. Russian Sinology reached its greatest flowering in the first decades of our relations after the proclamation of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949 and the conclusion of the Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance between the USSR and the PRC on February 14, 1950. The Treaty on Good Neighborliness, Friendship and Cooperation between the Russian Federation and the PRC, signed in Moscow on July 16, 2001 by the leaders of the two states, became the basis for the further development of relations between neighboring countries and opened a new stage in our joint history. At the beginning of the XXI century. both sides continue to consistently follow this path. Regular contacts are maintained between the leaders of the two states, decisions are made aimed at further developing the strategic partnership, and actions are being coordinated in regional and international affairs. During the official visit of the President of the People's Republic of China Xi Jinping to Moscow on March 22, 2013, he and Russian President Vladimir Putin signed a Joint Statement on mutually beneficial cooperation and deepening relations between the two countries, as well as adopted an action plan to implement the provisions of the Neighborliness Treaty. friendship and cooperation between the RF and the PRC. Of all the civilizations that arose in the past in different parts of the world, only the Chinese one is distinguished by the continuity of its millennial development. Sumerian, Hittite, Assyro-Babylonian, Crete-Mycenaean, ancient Egyptian civilizations, the cultures of the Incas, Mayans and many others disappeared as a result of internal internecine

6 6 To the reader of bits, enemy invasions, natural disasters - volcanic activity, earthquakes, floods, droughts, etc. Chinese civilization has made a significant contribution to the development of the entire human society. The world learned from China the technology of high-quality casting of bronze, the production of porcelain, silk, tea, paper, and the production of gunpowder; from there, a compass and a seismograph came to us, there for the first time they began to build large-sized sea vessels, a movable typographic font appeared, etc. Various historical periods China was active in land and sea trade not only with its immediate neighbors, but also with territories subject to the Persian Empire, the rulers of the countries conquered by Alexander the Great, the Kushan Kingdom, the Roman Empire and the Arab Caliphate, as well as with the countries of South Asia and East Africa. Over the centuries, the policies and culture of China have had a particularly strong impact on neighboring countries (Korea, Japan, Vietnam, the countries of Southeast Asia). Until the middle of the XVIII century. Chinese civilization with a greater or lesser degree of success overcame numerous calamities - foreign invasions, civil wars, natural disasters. However, the gradually accumulating lag behind the leading world powers that embarked on the path of the industrial revolution, and then the armed invasion of Great Britain and France in the middle of the 19th century, militaristic Japan from the end of the 19th century, as well as the intervention of the eight powers in the suppression of the uprising of the Ichtuan, sharply slowed down the development of China. , turning it into a semi-colonial, semi-feudal country dependent on foreign states. The victory of the People's Democratic Revolution under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party led on October 1, 1949 to the creation of a new state on Chinese soil - the People's Republic of China. People's China has embarked on the path of building socialism in a country with Chinese characteristics and has been successfully pursuing a policy of reforms, modernization and opening up to the outside world for more than 30 years. Nowadays, the People's Republic of China demonstrates to the whole world its successes in the field of economy, science, development of nuclear energy, astronautics, rocket science, construction of high-speed railways and highways, as well as in various sports. The six-volume encyclopedia "Spiritual Culture of China" edited by Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences M.L. Titarenko (M.,), created by a team of Russian sinologists, evoked a wide response from readers and was awarded the State Prize of the Russian Federation for 2010. Of equal interest to the Russian public, no doubt, The ten-volume "History of China from ancient times to the beginning of the XXI century" proposed to the reader, on which scientists from various academic institutes and universities of Russia (Institute of the Far East RAS, Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, Institute of Oriental Manuscripts RAS, Institute of Archeology and Ethnography Siberian Branch RAS, Institute countries of Asia and Africa Lomonosov Moscow State University, St. Petersburg State University, etc. ). The authors, scientific editors of volumes and members of the Main Editorial Board, realizing the complexity of the task at hand to fit the multi-thousand-year history of Chinese civilization into ten volumes, tried to reflect the main events of

7 Readers of China - from Paleolithic sites and the first Neolithic settlements to the modern PRC with its generally recognized international authority. Each volume has an average of about 60 copies, chronological tables, illustrations and maps, selected bibliography, indexes are provided. At the same time, since the publication is designed for a fairly wide circle of readers, the authors and editors of the volumes tried to combine the scientific level of presentation of the material with its popular presentation. History of China in ten volumes, broken down by chronological periods... T. I. The most ancient and ancient history (according to archaeological data): from the Paleolithic to the V century. BC. Resp. editor - Acad. RAS A.P. Derevyanko (Institute of Archeology and Ethnography SB RAS, Novosibirsk). T. II. The era of Zhanguo, Qin and Han: V century. BC. - III century. AD Resp. editor - Doctor of History J1.S. Perelomov (Institute of the Far East of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow). T. III. Three Kingdoms, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui, Tang: Otv. editors - d.h.s. I.F.Popova (Institute of Oriental Manuscripts RAS, St. Petersburg), Doctor of Philology M.E. Kravtsova (Saint Petersburg State University). T. IV. Period of the Five Dynasties, the Song Empire, the states of Liao, Jin, Xi Xia: Rev. editor - Doctor of History I.F. Popova (Institute of Oriental Manuscripts RAS, St. Petersburg). T. V. Yuan and Ming Dynasties: Otv. editors - d.h.s. A.Sh. Kadyrbaev, Doctor of History A.A. Bokshchanin (Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, Moscow). T. VI. Qing Dynasty: Rev. editor - Doctor of History OE Nepomnin (Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, Moscow). T. VII. Republic of China: Ot. editor - Doctor of History NL Mamaeva (Institute of the Far East of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow). T. VIII. People's Republic of China: Otv. editors - Doctor of Historical Sciences V.N.Usov, A.G. Yurkevich (Institute of the Far East of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow). T. IX. People's Republic of China: Otv. editor - Doctor of Political Sciences A.V. Vinogradov (Institute of the Far East of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow). T. X. Taiwan, Xianggang (Hong Kong), Macau (Macau), overseas Chinese diaspora. Resp. editors - Doctor of Law L.M. Gudoshnikov, Ph.D. G.A. Stepanova (Institute of the Far East of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow). In the prefaces to the volumes, along with the presentation of the main content of the volume, information is given about significant historical events that took place during the period in question in Asia, Europe and America. The selection of illustrations was carried out by the authors and executive editors of the volumes, as well as by Acad. RAS by B.L. Riftin. The authors and editors of this ten-volume edition express the hope that the presented work will allow the reader to get acquainted with the history of China, which will contribute to the development of further mutual understanding and friendship between the neighboring peoples of the Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China. RAS Academician S.L. Tikhvinsky, Chairman of the Main Editorial Board of the ten-volume edition "History of China from Ancient Times to the Beginning of the XXI Century"

8 INTRODUCTION This volume covers a long period of the history of Chinese civilization in the 1st-10th centuries, containing several separate and relatively independent eras. The death of the ancient Han empire (206 BC) marked the beginning of the "Time of Troubles", decentralization, a series of short-lived dynasties that succeeded each other, which, almost 400 years later, ended with the unification of the country under the rule of Sui () and Tan (). Reborn in a vast space, chinese empire experienced its highest in history heyday in the Tang era and, having gone through the stages of cohesion, development and decline of the imperial state, at the beginning of the 10th century. under the blows of the peasant war, it again disintegrated into a number of independent territorial entities. In the centuries-old history of China, the period of the 1st-10th centuries. was marked by global historical and cultural processes, during which the main traditions crystallized, which determined further typological features not only of Chinese, but of the entire Far Eastern civilization. In this era, systems of state ideology, administrative management, codified law, religious complex and cultural canons were formed, which determined the appearance of Chinese civilization for centuries to come. The eventful political history of the 3rd-6th centuries, spanning between the two huge centralized empires of Han and Tang, includes several periods. The first is the Three Kingdoms (Sango,), when, after the death of Han, the country split into three sovereign states - Wei (), Wu () and Shu (Han-Sh u,). This is followed by the periods of the Western Jin (265 /) and Eastern Jin (317 ^ 420) dynasties, often summarized in Chinese sources in the "era of two Jin". Under the first of these, there was a short-term unification of China. During the second period, the regions of the Yellow River basin (Northern China) were conquered by neighboring non-Chinese peoples, who founded many short-term state formations (kingdoms). Actually, at this time, the Chinese statehood for the first time in its history moved to the South, to the regions of the lower and middle reaches of the Yangtze. The ethnocultural fragmentation of then China was finally established in the era of the Southern and Northern Dynasties (Nanbeichao, 386 / / 589). The southern dynasties (Nanchao) are the Chinese states that succeeded each other: Liu-Song (4 2 0 ^ 7 9), South Qi (), Liang () and Chen (). The Northern Wei state (Toba Wei, or

9 Introduction 9 Later Wei,) and the Western Wei (), Eastern Wei (), Northern Qi () and Northern Zhou () emerged from its fragments. However, with all the discreteness of the historical and political process, the period of the III-VI centuries. forms an integral phase, the unity of which was conditioned, in addition, by the commonality and continuity of cultural changes. Therefore, in European Sinology (for Chinese scientists, this problem is not so urgent due to the brevity and capacity of hieroglyphic terminology) in the first half of the 20th century. began to search for such a terminological designation that would cover all these centuries. From 1930 to the present, they are often denoted by means of terminological clichés derived from the concept of "political fragmentation". Approximately from the middle of the 20th century, when the theory of the "Chinese Middle Ages" prevailed in European and, somewhat later, in Russian Sinology. the definition of "the era of the early Middle Ages" or "the era of early medieval China" (Early Medieval China) was fixed. In Soviet studies of the ies, the terminological formula "on the threshold of the Middle Ages" was also used. It must be admitted that the allocation of the "era of early medieval China" meant full recognition of the historical and cultural integrity and identity of the 3rd-6th centuries. At the same time, there were also many scientists who were skeptical about this definition, believing that it was fraught with false associations with the European Middle Ages. In recent years, Western Sinology has increasingly used the arsenal of Chinese historiographic terminology. The term Nanbeichao, or "the era of division into North and South", is proposed to be applied to the entire period of the 3rd-6th centuries in order to emphasize the fundamental importance of the formation of a new ethno-cultural substrate in the North. For the editors of this volume, the term “Six Dynasties” (Luchao) seems to be the most acceptable term, which traditionally denotes six state entities, starting with the kingdom of Wu during the Three Kingdoms period and including the Southern Dynasties, whose capitals were located on the site of modern Nanjing. Consequently, the term “There are dynasties” contains the required chronological parameters. In addition to the problem of terminological definitions, the era of the Six Dynasties continues to be one of the least studied periods in the history of Chinese civilization. This is explained, on the one hand, by the incredible complexity of both historical, political and cultural processes, saturated to the limit with various, often extremely ambiguous, events and phenomena. On the other hand, over the academic community for a long time was dominated by the traditionalist stereotype, which originated in the historical thought of the Tang era, when the period of the III-VI centuries. was perceived exclusively as a "time of troubles", which consisted of socio-political collisions and disasters and was marked by the fall of ethical foundations and the degradation of the entire national spirituality. Nevertheless, the foundations of the unprecedented flourishing of Chinese civilization in the Tang era were laid precisely during the Six Dynasties.

10 10 Introduction Relatively fast unification of a huge country at the end of the 6th century. made possible by deep economic and political preconditions that matured during the era of the Six Dynasties. Exhausting internecine wars undermined the country's economy, led to mass deaths and resettlement of peasants, and made it difficult to use the irrigation system. Centralization was necessary to combat river floods and devastating droughts. An effective defense of land borders was required from the strengthened northern nomadic neighbors. At the same time, the unification of the original Chinese lands was facilitated by the formation of a new ethnic and cultural alloy, which substantially renewed its appearance of the Chinese ethnos. The devastation, desolation and famine led to the development of ways and methods of bringing the country out of the state of economic collapse. The decline of agriculture served as an effective stimulus for the development of crafts and trade. Many old and newly built cities have become large trade and craft centers, focused not only on the domestic market, but also on foreign trade relations. Military dictatorial dictators and we consolidated imperial ideals and values, which found expression in the pursuit of imperial order as the best form of social organization. The beginning of the complex and multilateral process of integrating Chinese society into a single administrative-territorial, economic and military structure was laid by the short-lived predecessor of the Great Tang - the Sui empire, which united the country in 589. It was the Sui princes who began to implement the primary measures aimed at strengthening the central government and improving bureaucratic apparatus inherited by Sui from the Northern Chinese dynasties. The most successful and effective institutions - central government bodies, administrative-territorial structure, military organization, tax system - were modified and spread throughout most of China. The unified legal and state examination systems were restored and improved. The area of \u200b\u200bcrops expanded, crafts rose, new cities revived and grew. The construction of canals and roads connecting the north and central part of China with the fertile regions in the south and east laid the foundation for the country's economic unity. However, all these, of course, important reforms were carried out on a scale beyond the strength of the recently re-created empire. Internal political miscalculations and excessive external conquest ambitions led to the Sui crisis and a new wave of popular riots and separatist rebellions in the years. The reign of the Tang dynasty, which reunited the country, was a period of economic prosperity, political power and splendor of the culture of imperial China and had an enormous multilateral influence on the entire subsequent course of the history of the Far Eastern region. By adopting Sui's political course aimed at restoring unity, the Tang imperial house developed and based its transformations on a political ideology, which became not only a powerful structure-forming beginning of Chinese society, but

11 Introduction 11 and ensured the vitality of the imperial state, unprecedented until then. The historical situation that had developed in China by the beginning of the 7th century required further strengthening of the supreme power and the concentration of real administrative functions in the hands of the ruler of a single empire. This crucial goal was achieved by the Tang ruling house in view of the political and social changes that have taken place in China during the period of fragmentation and civil strife. Decentralization and instability in the era of the Six Dynasties caused multidirectional destructive processes: on the one hand, from among the local aristocracy and the service class, political forces aimed at achieving specific short-term tasks were formed rather mobilely, on the other hand, there was a departure of a certain part of the bureaucracy from political activity, transfer main interests from the sphere of state-practical to the spiritual. The theoretical universalism of the monarch's functions in practice turned into uncertainty and lack of specificity. In the public consciousness, centrifugal sentiments have increased, the importance of personality and clan has increased, and the opposition of the statesman to incapable rulers has intensified. Therefore, developing the dogmas of the supreme power, the Tang dynasty not only talked about attracting the service class to its side, but also demonstrated that it saw a worthy political partner in a statesman. Early Nethan theory government controlled was intended to become the basis for the interaction of a viable monarchy personified in a bright, talented ruler, the embodiment of which was the second emperor Tang Tai-zong (), and the bureaucratic elite, the standards of personal self-actualization of which, due to objective reasons, were then very high. The reign of Tai Zong under the slogan Zhen-guan ("True Consideration") was not only the "golden time" of the Tang era, but one of the highest periods in the entire history of China. Tai Zong managed to achieve political stability of the state in a key period of the empire's formation and, thanks to this, to carry out a grandiose military-conquest program of restoring the Chinese state within territorial boundaries that surpassed the borders of the Han Empire. Thanks, on the one hand, to personal military leadership participation in the conquests (which was appreciated by the nomadic neighbors), on the other hand, to the stratagem ability to include military affairs in the traditional Chinese concept of universal amenities, Tai Tszong was able to achieve from the Turks, who had undoubted political dominance in Central Asia, unprecedented recognition of their leadership and their inclusion in the Tang Empire as an orderly part of it. Proof of this recognition was the proclamation of Tai Tsong by the Heavenly Kagan, who was defeated by him in 630 by the Turks. The structure of imperial statehood laid down by Tai-tszong had an absolutely real margin of safety for a fairly long term,

12 12 Introduction which was a reasonably permissible limit of complexity, controllability, expediency of financial costs, expenditures of state resources for its maintenance and foreign policy. That is why the Tang Empire safely survived the reigns of Gao-tsong () and Empress Wu Zetian (Wu-hou,) without any particular upheavals, which, like the period of Taizong rule under the motto Zhen-guan, were attributed by Chinese traditional historiography to the era of the Initial Tang ... At this time, the power of the Tang Empire spread over vast territories, including the oasis states of the Western Territory (present-day Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of the PRC), through which the Great Silk Road passed. Along this trade route, not only the main trade between China and the West took place, but also the cultural influence of China in the West, and vice versa, along the same path, foreign influence on China went. Thanks to the developed northern caravan and southern sea routes, the Chinese began to assimilate and organically weave into their own culture the heterogeneous elements of the civilizations of the East and West. Since the II III centuries. from North India via Kashmir and Central Asia, and then through Khotan and Dunhuang, Buddhism rapidly penetrated into China and found an increasing influence in Chinese society. Nominally, the Tang vassalage was recognized by very distant states, in 659 there was even a formally ambitious establishment of the administrative-territorial structures of the Tang Empire in the lands up to modern Afghanistan. In the middle of the VII century. the kingdoms of the Korean Peninsula - Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla - fell under the rule of China, although not for long. The reign of Empress Wu Zetian became an interesting and unique phenomenon of the political culture of the Far East. Wu-hou, being the only woman in the history of China, other- "emperor" (. Huangdi), tried to create a completely new concept of supreme power. Adapting the official state ideology and ritual to the new political reality of her personal domination, she used the postulates of Buddhism, which allowed for the reincarnation of a monarch without a gender component. However, the Chinese imperial Confucian ideology did not give the empress a chance to legitimize political rolethat she claimed. Wu-hou, being the wife of Gao-tsong, went down in Chinese history as the legitimate representative of the Tang house. The short reign of the Zhou dynasty () that she founded did not lead to the break of the Tang era into Early and Late, as happened with the Han, when Wang Man usurped the throne and proclaimed the short-lived Xin dynasty (9-25 AD). At the same time, undoubtedly, the Zhou dynasty established by Wu-hou had its own authentic state ideology, and the Tang revived in 705 was significantly different from what it was before. It is well known that traditional Chinese historiography did not favor Wu-hou, especially during the Song () period, when the offensive term Pinchao was born, where ping means a female animal, and chao means a dynasty. The reassessment of the role of Wu Zetian in Chinese history took place no earlier than the middle of the 20th century, when the works of Chen Yingque () and Guo Moruo () were published.

13 Introduction 13 It is generally accepted that the Tang Empire reached the zenith of its glory under the Emperor Xuanzong (rights), in an unprecedented period of the rise of Chinese culture - poetry, music, urban planning, called "High, or Prosperous, Tang." However, more than serious problems were already hidden behind the external splendor of that era. All attempts by the court to restrain the growth of private land ownership, landlessness of peasants, erosion of provincial administrative structures and the central power vertical did not yield results. Desperate to put in order the administrative-bureaucratic system that he inherited from the predecessor monarchs, Xuanzong decided on an extremely risky innovation. In 742, he entrusted the governors-general (tsedugii) with military and civil powers in the territory entrusted to them. Strengthening the institution of tsedugii, which is a specific and in many respects defining feature of the military-administrative structure of the Tang Empire, ultimately led to the political collapse of the dynasty. The uprising of Governor General An Lushan (in Chinese historiography it is called “the uprising of An [Lushan] and Shi [Siming]”) devastated the whole of Northern China, involved millions of the country's inhabitants, huge numbers of nomadic mercenaries and led to a radical rearrangement of forces throughout Asia. After the suppression of this uprising, the Tang dynasty suffered a deep crisis (the Late Tang period), from which it no longer recovered, and as a result perished as a result of civil strife and a continuous series of uprisings of peasants and the lumenized lower classes. In the long period of the III-X centuries. many key events in world history took place, the main civilizational centers of the West and the East were formed and the dogmas of world religions - Christianity, Buddhism and Islam - were finally formed. At the end of the IV century. The Roman Empire disintegrated into the East with the political center in Constantinople and the West, the capital of which moved from Rome to spare capitals (similar to the Chinese pade) in Trier, Mediolana (Milan) and Ravenna. On the borders of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes grew stronger, which then played a decisive role in its downfall. The fate of the Eastern Roman Empire, the permanent capital of which became Constantinople since 330, was influenced by the Greeks, Slavs and some peoples of Asia Minor. Having regained itself under the Emperor Justinian (, rights) for several decades a significant part of the coastal territories of the former western provinces of Rome, the Eastern Empire, which in history was called Byzantine, until the end of the 11th century. remains a powerful Mediterranean power and, along with China, one of the largest civilizational centers of the then world. Over time, on the eastern borders of Byzantium, the Persian Sassanian state strengthened, whose borders cover the territories of modern Iraq and Iran. Invasion threat nomadic peoples pushed the Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid state to an alliance, although there was a constant struggle between them for trade routes from China to the Black and Mediterranean Seas. From the middle of the VI century.

14 14 Introduction to the system of geopolitical relations of the largest states of that time and to the struggle for control on trade routes, the states-kaganates of the Turkic nomads of Central Asia were included, and from the middle of the 7th century. - Arabic X aliphat. In 651 Sassanian Iran fell under the blows of the troops of the Caliphate, which for more than a century until the end of the 9th century. becomes the unifying center of the Muslim world. By the VIII century. under the rule of the Caliphate were vast territories, including the lands between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya, Fergana, the Tashkent oasis, the Iranian Highlands, which were part of the sphere of Tang's geopolitical interests. And thus, for China, rivalry with the Arab-Muslim conquerors rushing further into Central Asia becomes an important content of foreign policy. The expansion of the territory of these two largest states of the medieval East was mutually stopped in 751, when south of the lake. Balkhash (on the Talas River), a battle took place between the Chinese army under the leadership of General Gao Xianzhi (d. 755) and the army of the Arab Caliphate. After the An Lushan uprising, a significant part of the territories that had previously been subordinate to the Chinese emperor fell under the control of the Tibetan state, which had fought a lot and successfully with China, and the Uyghur Kaganate (). As a result, the Tang Empire lost control over Central Asia, and hence over the trade routes passing through it. At the same time, in the northeast of China, new enemy - the state of Liao, founded by the Khitan, and in the north - the Tangut state of Western Xia. In Europe from the IV century. to VII century. there is a "Great Migration of Nations". This time was the peak of migration processes that covered almost the entire continent and radically changed their ethnic, cultural and political appearance. The tribes, which the ancient Greeks and Romans called "barbaric", experienced a period of disintegration of the tribal system. Under pressure from nomads from the east, they tried to seize new lands in the face of the weakening of the Roman Empire, which turned out to be no longer able to withstand the onslaught from the strengthened neighbors. In the 1st-5th centuries. the main role in the Great Migration was played by Germanic and Turkic, later also Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes. In 486, as a result of the Frankish conquest in Northern Gaul, the Frankish kingdom arose, headed by Charlemagne () in 768, who, after many years of wars, managed by 800 to unite vast territories under his rule into a single Carolingian empire. After the death of Charlemagne, the empire fell into three parts. This disintegration was formalized by the Treaty of Verdun concluded between the grandchildren of Charlemagne in 843. Under this treaty, Charles, nicknamed the Bald, received lands west of the Rhine - the West Frankish kingdom, i.e. the future France, Louis the German took possession of the regions east of the Rhine and north of the Alps - the East Frankish kingdom, the future Germany, Lothair got possession of a strip of land on the left bank of the Rhine (future Lorraine) and Northern Italy. Significant processes are taking place at this time and in the ethnic formation of the Slavs, who in the V century. from the territory of the Carpathian region and the right bank of the middle Dnieper region

15 Introduction 15 spread to the west, south and northeast. To the west, the Slavs migrated towards the upper Vistula and Elbe from the eastern and northern sides of the Carpathians. To the east, they spread in the direction of the upper Volga and Oka. To the south, Slavic tribes moved towards the Danube, populating areas along its tributaries and invading the Byzantine Empire. In the U1-UN centuries. the Slavic world was divided into three groups: southern, western and eastern. United in the IX century. in a single state, the lands of the East Slavic tribes were called Rus. The city of Kiev, called in the Russian chronicles "the mother of Russian cities", became the core of the territory of the ancient Russian people. During its heyday under the Tang Dynasty, China made a significant contribution to the culture of neighboring countries, and caused a wave of imitation in Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Tibet, and the young states of Central Asia. The most different sides of your life from political structure and court customs before writing, printing, versification and cutting of clothing, their peoples became indebted to the Tang culture. The aristocrats of neighboring states sent their children to study in the Tang capital of Chang'an, the magnificent capitals of Gyeongju in Korea and Kyoto in Japan were erected on the model of Chang'an, the teachings of Confucius and Chinese Buddhism spread widely. Many monarchs invited the Chinese as officials, mentors and poets, followed by them until the 17th century. the name “Tang people” (tanj en) was fixed, and the Chinatowns in non-Chinese cities are still called “streets of the Tang people” (tanj enjie) in modern Chinese. Responsible editors of the volume: Doctor of Historical Sciences I. F. Popova (Institute of Oriental Manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences), Doctor of Philological Sciences M. E. K. Ravtsova (St. Petersburg State University)

16 LIST OF AUTHORS OF THE VOLUME Bar gacheva V. Iktoriya N and kolaevna V. Adda B. Orisovna, Cand. Philos. Sciences Donskaya Alexandra E vgenievna, Cand. ist. Sci. Erem eev V Ladimir E vsegneevich (), Cand. Philos. Sciences Zednitskiy Alexander D mitrievich, Cand. Philos. Sci. K and E vgeniy A. leksandrovich, Cand. Philos. Sciences K ravtsova Marina E vgenievna, Dr. of Philology Sci. Novikov Boris M. Ikhaylovich, Ph.D. ist. Sciences P op ova Irina Fedorovna, Dr. Sci. R y bakov V yacheslav M. Ikhaylovich, Dr. Sci. S. Molin Georgy Ya kovlevich (), Dr. Sci. S torozh uk A leksandr Georgievich, Dr. of Philology. Sciences Preparation of materials G.Ya.Smolin and V.E.Eremneva B and Ryukova An astasiya Sergeevna Name Indicator T erekhov A nton E duardovich, B on ch-o sm tin O lga A ndreevna Glossary 1. T oponyms, ethnonyms, architectural and cult constructions K ravtsova Marina Evgenievna Glossary 2. Termins K ravtsova Marina Evgenievna Chronology of the main historical events Terekhov An on Eduardovich , P op ova Irina Fedorovna, K ravtsova Marina E vgenievna Table of dynasties and kingdoms Terekhov Anton Eduardovich

17 CONTENTS To the reader (S.L. Tikhvinsky) ... 5 Introduced by (I.F. Popov, M.E. Kravtsova) ... 8 Part I P O L I T I CH E S S T O R I Y K I T A I III - X centuries. CHAPTER 1. Basic written sources on the history of China, I I I X centuries. (M.E. Kravtsova) CHAPTER 2. Throetz ar tie () (M. E. Kravtsova) At the turn of centuries and eras () History of the Wei kingdom (/ 266) History of the kingdoms of Wu () and Han -Shu () CHAPTER 3. Dynasties Zapadnaya Tsin (2 6 5 /) (M.E. Kravtsova) Foreign and domestic policy gg. Domestic political crisis and the Troubles of the eight Vanov Death of Western Jin () CHAPTER 4. The Northern Kingdom of the 4th century (M E. Kravtsova) Xiongnu kingdoms of Han (304 /) and Early Zhao () Xiongnu kingdoms of Late Zhao () Disc kingdom of Early Liang (301 /) Kingdom of Early Yan (333 /) and others state formations, founded by the Xianbei-mujuns Disk kingdom Early Qin () Northern kingdoms of the end IV - beginning of V in the Southwestern kingdom of Cheng (303 /) CHAPTER 5. D in nastiya East Ts zin () (M E. Kravtsova) A fragment of the imperial statehood Rebellions, wars and palace intrigues Agony and death

18 Table of contents 987 CHAPTER 6. Northern states of the epoch of Southern and Northern dynasties () (M E. Kravtsova) From tribal strife to power The flourishing and collapse of the Tobi state Northern Wei () Northern states of the VI century CHAPTER 7. Southern Chinese states of the era of the Southern and Northern dynasties () (M.E. Kravtsova) Liu-Song dynasty () Southern Qi dynasty () Liang dynasty () Events of the VI years in. and the Chen dynasty () CHAPTER 8. Imper and I Sui () (I.F. Popova) Rise of Sui Domestic policy of Wen-di () Foreign policy of Wen-di Rise of Yang-di () Domestic politics Yang-di Foreign policy of Yang-di Taiyuan uprising of 617 g CHAPTER 9. Imperia Tang () The reign of Gao-tsu () (I.F. Popov) Great achievements of the Zhen-guan period () (I .F.Popov) Foreign policy of Tai-tsong () (I.F.Popov) Board of Gao-tsong () (I.F.Popov) Ascent of U Zetian (U-hou) (I.F. Popov) Regency of U Zetian under the sons of () (IF Popov) Wu Zetian - "emperor" of the Zhou dynasty () (IF Popov) The reign of Chzhong-tsong () and Rui-tsong () (I. F. Popov) Emperor Xuan- tszong, Kai-yuan period () (I.F. Popov) An Lushan uprising () (I.F. Popov) Decline of Tang () (M.E. Kravtsova, I.F. Popov) Rebel movements of the second half of the Tang era and the uprising of Huang Chao () (based on the materials of G.Ya.Smolin) Agony and the death of the great empire (M.E. Kravtsova) CHAPTER 10. Ethnodemographic processes, natural environment and economic cultures zoning (A.E. Donskaya) The era of the Six dynasties The era of Sui and T an

19 988 Table of contents Part II R E L I G I O Z N O-I D E O L O G I CH E C A Y S I T U A C I Z V K I T A E I I I - X centuries. CHAPTER 1. Confucianism and Confucian Institutions in I I I V I centuries. (VN Bargacheva) The main directions of the development of Confucianism The system of selection of officials and the development of Confucian socio-ethical views Educational system CHAPTER 2. Ao sism in I I I V I centuries. (M E. Kravtsova) Teaching about Tao and its cultural and religious origins School of Heavenly Teachers (tyanshi-Dao) and mass religious movements of the 2nd 4th centuries Elite Taoist teachings of the 3rd 4th centuries Late Taoist schools and the formation of the Taoist canon CHAPTER 3. B Uddism in the IIIVI centuries: the form and rovanie of the Chinese-Buddhist tradition (E.L. Kiy) Buddhist tradition in Asia The main sources on the history of Buddhism in the III-VI centuries. and the problem of the time of penetration of Buddhist teachings into China Formation of the Chinese Buddhist tradition Chapter 4. Three teachings and state religious and ideological policy in the era of Sui and Tang (A.D. Zelnitsky) Features of the official religious and ideological policy under the Tang Taoism in the Tang era: leading figures and the main directions of the development of theoretical thought and book tradition Place and role of foreign beliefs in the religious life of the Tang society Part III P R A V O I N A U CH N O -T E X N I Ch E S K A I M S L L III - X centuries. CHAPTER 1. Tansk o e legislation (V.M. Rybakov) Criminal provisions ln Generally binding provisions l in

20 Table of contents 989 Normative regulations g e Intradepartmental institutions w and CHAPTER 2. Science and technology (based on materials by V.E. Eremeev) Astronomy and astrology Mathematics Chemistry, alchemy, medicine, botany and biology Techno-rational knowledge Geographical knowledge and the development of vehicles Chapter 3. Architecture and engineering art (M.E. Kravtsova) Theories and practices of urban planning Constructive and engineering features of construction practice Typologies of buildings and their architectural incarnations Architectural and mathematical theories Part IV LIT E R A T U R N O E T V O R CH E S T V O III - X centuries. CHAPTER 1. The X artistic literature of the era of the Six dynasties to the eyes and theorists of literature I I I V I centuries. (MEKravtsova) Literary and theoretical thought of the era of the Six Dynasties: the main monuments Views on literary and poetic creativity Genre composition of literary literature (wen) Chapter 2. History of poetry I I I V I centuries. (M.E. Kravtsova) "Wind and the skeleton of the Chian-an era" Poetry in the style of Zheng-shi Poetry in the style of Tai-kang Poetry IV in Poetic creativity of the period of the Liu-Song dynasty Poetry in the Yong-ming style and verses of the palace style G Chapter 3. About the era of the Six dynasties (M.E. Kravtsova) Chapter 4. Literature of the era of Tan (A.G. Storozhuk) About the phenomenon of Tang literature Four outstanding and Chen Ziang Bo Tszyu-i, Yuan Zhen and "new yuefu" Wang Fanzhi and religious Buddhist poetry

21 990 Table of Contents Jiaorhan and the concept of the "world of works" Wang Wei Meng Haojan Li B o Du Fu Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan Chuanqi Poetry of the end of the Tang era Part V I S K U S S T V O I I I - X centuries. CHAPTER 1. Great and visual and art (M.E. Kravtsova) Monumental stone sculpture Burial plastics Artistic reliefs Monumental painting CHAPTER 2. B Uddian and Taoist cult and visual arts ( M.E. Kravtsova) The origin and iconographic principles of Sino-Buddhist cult art Main artistic monuments: cave monasteries and rock temples Regional art schools Taoist cult fine art CHAPTER 3.Soviet painting (M.E. Kravtsova) Origins silk painting and pictorial art of the Six Dynasties The painting of the Tang era: the main genre and stylistic trends and their representatives CHAPTER 4. Decorative art (M.E. Kravtsova) Ceramics Jewelry making Lacquer production Weaving CHAPTER 5. Musical and dance art (A. B. Vats, M. E. Kravtsova) Cult and ceremonial-spectacular repertoire of the Chinese states of the III-VI centuries

22 Table of Contents 991 Musical and dance art of the Northern states of the IV-VI centuries Highly solemn music of the Great Tang and court "banquet music" Popular musical and dance performances Appendix 1. Famous dignitaries and military leaders of China III-VII centuries. (BM Novikov) Appendix 2. Table of dynasties and kingdoms Appendix 3. Chronology of major historical events Appendix 4. Maps Selected bibliography Index of names Glossary 1. Toponyms, ethnonyms, architectural and religious buildings Glossary 2 . Terms List of authors volume a

23 Scientific publication HISTORY OF CHINA FROM ANCIENT EISH AND X TIMES TO THE BEGINNING OF XXI CENTURY in 10 volumes Volume III TRINITY, TSZI N L, SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN DI NASTIS, SUI, TAN () Approved for publication by the Institute of Oriental Manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences Editor-in-Chief Ya.B. Geisherik Editor A.A. Pimenov Artist E.L. Erman Technical editor O.V. Volkova Proofreader I.I. Chernysheva Computer layout M / 7. Gorshenkova Format 70xl00 "/ j6. Offset printing U. pp. 80.0 + 2.3 pp. (Incl.). U. cr.-Ott. 89.2. Uch.-ed. L. 78 , 0 Circulation 1000 copies Publishing house "Nauka", Moscow, Profsoyuznaya st., 90 Publishing company "Vostochnaya literatura", Moscow, Maronovsky lane, 26 PPP "Printing house" Nauka ", Moscow G-99, Shubinsky lane ., 6 LLC "Digital Printing House 21", Moscow, st. Rochdelskaya, 15, p. 29 ISBN ISBN

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• Publisher: M .: Science
• ISBN: 978-5-02-039991-4
• Year: 2017
• Quantity. pages: 821
• Circulation: 1000

PRICE: 2 992 rubles.

Book description:

The eighth volume of the publication "The History of China from Ancient Times to the Beginning of the XXI Century" is devoted to the first quarter of a century of the existence of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976). This period begins with the coming to power in the country of the Chinese Communist Party and ends with the passing of the chairman of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, Mao Zedong. Already a few years after the formation of the PRC, a number of problems were solved for the restoration and development of the country's economy, and large-scale construction began. This was followed by a decade of searching for a path of development and an internal party struggle regarding the general course of the CPC, a decade of the "cultural revolution," which caused tremendous damage to the country's population and enormous damage to the economy. For historians-sinologists, specialists in the field of international relations, everyone interested in the history and culture of China.

To the reader (academician S. L. Tikhvinsky) ………. five

Foreword (YM Galenovich) ………. nine

THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA in 1949-1960 (V.N.Usov)

CHAPTER 1. Formation of the People's Republic of China.

The first years. 1949-1952 ………. nineteen

The proclamation of the PRC ………. nineteen

Suppression of "counterrevolution" ………. 29

Campaign against the "three evils" and "five abuses" ………. 32

"Re-education" of the intelligentsia ………. 36

Korean War ………. 40

Agrarian reform ………. 44

Economic foundations ………. 48

CHAPTER 2. Transition to socialist construction. 1953-1956 ………. 54

"General line". The PRC Constitution ………. 54

First five-year plan. 1953-1957 ………. 61

“Case of Gao Gang - Zhao Shushi” ………. 64

Transformations ………. 70

VIII Congress of the CPC ………. 78

"One hundred flowers" ………. 91

"Ordering style". Struggle against the "rightists" ………. 98

Policy in relation to religious organizations ………. 106

Results of the first five-year plan ………. 108

Science, education, culture and art ………. 110

CHAPTER 3. The Great Leap Forward. 1957-1960 ………. 118

Training ………. 118

Start ………. 121

Economy ………. 142

The Peng Dehuai Case ………. 149

Culture, art and science ………. 158

Effects ………. 162

Chapter 4. USSR and China in 1949-1960. ………. 169

Formation of relations ………. 169

Soviet-Chinese cooperation ………. 184

Chinese atomic bomb ………. 192

THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA IN THE PERIOD OF "SETTLEMENT"

Second half of 1960-1965 (V.N. Usov)

CHAPTER 1. Course towards "settlement". The second half of 1960–1962 ………. 199

Search ………. 199

Clarification ………. 222

Efforts to “Regulate” the Economy ………. 235

CHAPTER 2. Clash of trends. 1963-1965 ………. 247

Disagreements ………. 247

10th plenum. 1962 ………. 251

"Four purges" ………. 262

"Preparing for War" ………. 282

“Anti-revisionist” campaigns ………. 302

CHAPTER 3. Culture, education, science and technology. 1961-1965 ………. 309

Culture, arts and social sciences ………. 309

Education ………. 330

Nuclear weapon ………. 339

CHAPTER 4. Foreign policy of the PRC. 1961-1965 ………. 343

Relations between the USSR and the PRC ………. 343

"CULTURAL REVOLUTION". 1966-1976 (V.N. Usov)

CHAPTER 1. First stage. 1966-1969 ………. 348

Training………. 348

Start………. 359

Hongweipings ………. 376

"Chaos………. 406

“Seizure of Power” ………. 415

"Revolutionary committees" ………. 440

“The Liu Shaoqi Case” ………. 456

IX Congress of the CPC ………. 461

CHAPTER 2. Second stage. 1969–1973 ………. 467

Strengthening the role of the army and preparing for war ………. 467

The Lin Biao Case ………. 479

X Congress of the CPC ………. 485

CHAPTER 3. Third stage. 1973–1976 ………. 496

“Criticism of Lin Biao and Confucius ………. 496

"Settlement" ………. 512

Deng Xiaoping's Criticism ………. 523

The "April events" of 1976 ………. 531

CHAPTER 4. Impact of the “cultural revolution” ………. 539

Culture, education and science ………. 539

Foreign policy of the PRC and relations between the USSR and the PRC ………. 550

Effects………. 561

Foreign policy of the PRC (A.O. Vinogradov) ………. 566

Help Soviet Union (IN Sotnikova) ………. 590

Friendship Society (G.V. Kulikova) ………. 620

Society of Sino-Soviet Friendship ………. 620

Society of Soviet-Chinese Friendship ………. 627

Physical culture and sports in the PRC (N.Yu.Demido) ………. 655

Personalities. Political and public figures (VN Usov) ………. 669

Chronology of the main events (YM Galenovich) ………. 746

Index of names (A. Verchenko) ………. 793

Index of geographical names (AA Verchenko) ………. 806

Selected bibliography ………. 814

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The publishing house "Science - Eastern Literature" published the first two volumes (second and seventh) of the new ten-volume "History of China", created by a large scientific team of domestic scientists. The concept resembles the "Cambridge History of China", but does not copy it.

HISTORY OF CHINA FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE BEGINNING OF THE XXI CENTURY
In ten volumes Chief Editor
academician of RAS S. L. Tikhvinsky

Main editorial board
academician of RAS M. L. Titarenko (Deputy Chief Editor),
Candidate of Philology S. M. Anikeeva,
Corresponding Member of RAS V.I. Vasiliev,
academician of RAS A. P. Derevianko,
academician of RAS V. S. Myasnikov,
Corresponding Member of RAS V.V. Naumkin,
Doctor of Historical Sciences I. F. Popova,
academician of RAS B. L. Riftin

Here is what the editor-in-chief, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences S. L. Tikhvinsky, writes about the goals, objectives and content of the new History of China (excerpt from the introductory article To the Reader, Vol. VII, pp. 6–7):

The six-volume encyclopedia "Spiritual Culture of China" edited by Academician ML Titarenko (Moscow, 2006–2010), created by a team of Russian sinologists, evoked a wide response from readers and was awarded the State Prize of the Russian Federation for 2010.

The ten-volume History of China from Ancient Times to the Beginning of the 21st Century, offered to the reader by scientists from various academic institutes and universities of Russia (Institute of the Far East RAS, Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, Institute of Oriental Manuscripts RAS, Institute of Archeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Asian and African Countries of the Lomonosov Moscow State University, St. Petersburg State University, etc.). The authors, scientific editors of the volumes and members of the Chief Editorial Board, realizing the complexity of the task at hand to fit the multi-thousand-year history of Chinese civilization into ten volumes, tried to reflect the main events in the history of China - from Paleolithic sites and the first Neolithic settlements to modern life of the PRC with its generally recognized international authority. Each volume has an average of about 60 au. l., chronological tables, lists of illustrations and maps, selected bibliography, indexes of names and geographical names are provided.

The history of China in ten volumes is divided into chronological periods.

T. I. The most ancient and ancient history, Shang-Yin, Zhou: according to archaeological data. Resp. editor - Acad. A. P. Derevianko (Institute of Archeology and Ethnography SB RAS, Novosibirsk).

T. II. The era of Zhangguo, the Qin and Han empires: V century. BC e. - III century. n. e. Resp. editor - d. and. n. L. S. Perelomov (Institute of the Far East of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow).

T. III. Three Kingdoms, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui, Tang: 220–907. Resp. editors - d. and. n. I. F. Popova, Ph.D. n. M. E. Kravtsova (Institute of Oriental Manuscripts RAS, St. Petersburg).

T. IV. Period of the Five Dynasties, the Song Empire, the Liao, Jin, Xi Xia states: 907-1279. Resp. editor - d. and. n. I. F. Popova (Institute of Oriental Manuscripts RAS, St. Petersburg).

T. V. Yuan and Ming Dynasties: 1279-1644. Resp. editors - d. and. n. A. Sh. Kadyrbaev, D.I. n. A. A. Bokshchanin, Doctor of Philosophy n. A. I. Kobzev (Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, Moscow).

T. VI. Qing Dynasty: 1644-1911. Resp. editor - d. and. n. O. E. Nepomnin (Institute of Oriental Studies RAS, Moscow).

T. VII. Republic of China: 1912-1949. Resp. editor - d. and. n. N. L. Mamaeva (Institute of the Far East of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow).

T. VIII. People's Republic of China: 1949-1976. Resp. editor - d. and. n. V. N. Usov (Institute of the Far East of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow).

T. IX. People's Republic of China: 1976-2009. Resp. editor - d. polit. n. A. Vinogradov (Institute of the Far East of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow).

T. X. Taiwan, Xianggang (Hong Kong), Macau (Macau), the Chinese diaspora abroad. Resp. editors - d. and. n. L. M. Gudoshnikov, Ph.D. n. G. A. Stepanova (Institute of the Far East of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow).

In the prefaces to the volumes, along with the presentation of the main content, information is given about significant historical events that took place during the period in question in Asia, Europe and America.

The presented work will allow our reader to get acquainted with the history of China, which will contribute to the development of further mutual understanding and friendship between the neighboring peoples of the Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China.

RAS Academician S. L. Tikhvinsky
May 2013

• History of China from ancient times to the beginning of the XXI century. In ten volumes. T. II: The era of Zhangguo, Qin and Han (V century BC - III century AD) / Ch. ed. S. L. Tikhvinsky; Resp. ed. volumes by L. S. Perelomov; Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of the Far East. - Moscow: Nauka - Eastern Literature, 2013 .-- 687 p. ISBN: 978-5-02-036530-8; 978-5-02-036531-5 (vol. 2)

  Annotation:

  The second volume of "The History of China from Ancient Times to the Beginning of the 21st Century" is devoted to three periods that occupy a special place in the history of China, since it was in these centuries that the foundations of Chinese civilization were laid. During the Zhanguo period (Wrestling Kingdoms, V-III centuries BC), known as the "golden age" of Chinese philosophical and legal thought, two ethical and political schools emerged that offered different models social and state structure: "people for the state" (Legists) or "state for the people" (Confucians). The victory of the Legists was marked by the unification of the country and the creation of the Qin Empire (221–207 BC). The empire's creator, Qin Shihuang, carried out a series of economic and political reforms, but the exorbitant exploitation of the people and cruel laws caused numerous uprisings that contributed to the collapse of the empire. The founders of the new Han Dynasty learned from the history of the Qin Empire. During the Han period (206 BC - 220 AD) Confucianism becomes the state ideology, knowledge through the practice of state examinations is included in the management system, attempts are made to embody Confucius's social utopia - creating a society of small prosperity xiaokang.

  Bibliographic information:

• History of China from ancient times to the beginning of the XXI century. In ten volumes. T. VII: Republic of China (1912-1949) / Ch. ed. S. L. Tikhvinsky; Resp. ed. volumes by N. L. Mamaev; Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of the Far East. - M .: Nauka - Eastern Literature, 2013 .-- 863, p., P. inc ISBN: 978-5-02-036530-8; 978-5-02-036532-2 (vol. 7)
  Circulation: 1000 copies. (500 - 1st plant)

  Annotation:

  The seventh volume of "History of China from ancient times to the beginning of the XXI century" covers the period from the proclamation of China as a republic in 1912 to the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949. Like the previous volumes, it is devoted to a comprehensive study of China in all the diversity of society and state. In accordance with the task set, the subject of the study goes far beyond the political history, which is intertwined in the text, as in real life, with the history of economics, political, legal and administrative processes, with events. military history, history of diplomacy and foreign policy of the Republic of China, with social history, history of culture, with the activities of outstanding personalities of national and world scale.