N. Ladygin-Kots is the founder of domestic zoopsychology. From the book Z. Zorina, I.I. Poletaeva "Elementary thinking of animals: Higher nervous activity and zoopsychology"

Zorina Z. A., Smirnova A. A

What did the "speaking" monkeys told? Are the highest animals able to operate with symbols?

Are they talking or monkey?

(Preface publisher)

The idea of \u200b\u200bpublishing this book was suggested by one TV show Alexander Gordon, which carried out a wonderful project a few years ago: a series of interviews with domestic scientists, which lively and accessible form told about their research and related issues related to these studies. The transfer was dedicated to the abilities man monkeys Understand and use natural (human) language. In it, famous scientists Dr. Biol. Sciences Z. A. Zorina (researcher of intelligent behavior of animals) and the doctor of historical sciences M. L. Butovskaya (a specialist in the field of anthropology and fusion of primates) talked about the most interesting achievements of foreign, mainly American, biologists in this area.

The achievements were struck by these. They turned out to be so unexpected and, moreover, incredible that if it were not for the authority of scientists and an academic style of presentation (a detailed discussion of the conditions of each experiment, a multidimensional analysis of its results, caution in general estimates, etc.), their story could well be taken For a pseudo-native sensation.

I will give only two episodes from this conversation - as they are described already in the present book.

In the first episode, it was about the experiment of American scientists, the couple of Alan and Beatrice Gardner, who in 1966 they took to live in their family a 10-month female chimpanzee named Washo. Their goal was to find out whether the chimpanzee is able to master the simplest elements of the mediator language as a simplified language of American deafness gestures (as you know, the anthropoid voice apparatus is not adapted to reproduce the sounds of human speech).

After a short time, it became obvious that the Washo is not a passive laboratory animal, and the creature endowed with the need to learn and communicate. She did not just extract the dictionary, but asked questions, commented on their own actions and actions of their teachers, herself spoke with them, that is, he entered into a full-fledged bilateral communication with people. In a word, Washo surpassed the expectations of experimenters, and ... after three years of study, there were already about 130 characters ... She used the "words" to the place, united them in small sentences, came up with his own signs, joking and even swear.

... In case of errors, Ishoi straightened himself. Here is a typical example: she showed on the picture, made a sign "this is the food", then carefully looked at her hand and changed the "saying" to "this drink", which was correct. (...)

Washo accurately distinguished the sign of his own name and pronoun 1. She regularly used gestures "me", "I", "You" and the most strongest pronouns - "mine", "yours" (these were different signs). (...) She was well represented by the difference between the current subject and the object of his actions and showed this understanding when using not only the names of their own, but also pronoun. Addressing some request, Washo put "you" before "me" in 90% of cases: "You will release"; "You give me", but "I will give you." When I was talking to her signs "I tackle you," she was waiting for her to tickle. But when she was told "You tick me", she, in turn, rushed to tickle the interlocutor. (...)

Washo ... very quickly summarized one of his first signs "Open" and spontaneously transferred it to a large number of Objects (Referents). For example, Okosho initially trained this sign in relation to the opening of three specific doors. Not immediately, but she spontaneously began to use it to open all doors, including the doors of refrigerators and a buffet ... Then she applied this sign to open all the containers, including boxes, boxes, briefcases, bottles, saucepan. In the end, she made a real discovery - she filed this sign when she needed to turn the water tap!

Finishing barcode -

... The ability to use gestures in a figurative value. So, Washo "called" the minister who did not give her to drink for a long time, "dirty jack", and the word "dirty" was obviously used not in the sense of 'blurred', but as a fad. In other cases, different chimpanzees and gorillas attributed "dirty" to homeless cats, annoying gibbons and a hated leash for walking. Coco (Gorilla. - BUT. K.) also called one of the servants "you are dirty bad toilet" (p. 159-163).

Another episode refers to a later time - to the second half of the 80s. It was attended by the famous Canzi now - a representative of the recently open subspecies of dwarf chimpanzees Bonobo. Kanzi was a "bilingual". First, it was purposefully taught a new language to the Mediator Yerkish. Instead of ammsna gestures, a special computer keyboard with conditional (not iconic) icons ("lexigrams"), denoting the words of the English language, is used here. When the key is pressed, the word icon is displayed on the monitor (without sound playback of the word). Thus, both participants see the whole dialogue and can correct or supplement their replicas. In addition, Kansi along with lexigrams involuntarily learned about 150 English words and, according to the head of the project, Dr. Sue Sevidge-Rambo, could be directly related to the monitor and lexigram, to perceive and understand the sound speech. However, this observation required convincing experimental confirmation. After all, communicating with people, monkeys are so successful in the perception of non-verbal aspects of communication, which is often guessing about the intentions of the speaker, in fact, without understanding the meaning of words. S. Savage-Rambo illustrates this by a good example: if you follow the "soapy opera" with a sound off, then you almost always understand the meaning of what we are talking about. The ability to "read" information in a specific situation from different sources, including gestures, views, actions, intonation and knowledge of the same circumstances already visiting, monkeys are developed very well. From here it is often born that they understand words, because, focused primarily in the language, people forget about the existence of other information channels (p. 224).

To receive such confirmation, S. Savage-Rambo conducted a unique experiment, which allowed to compare the understanding of the sentences by the man from Kanzi and the child - Girls Ali. (...) At the beginning of testing (it lasted from May 1988 until February 1989), Kansi was 8 years old, and Ale 2 years. They were offered a total of 600 oral tasks, each time new, in which words, and syntactic structures were systematically changed in each sample. Phrases of one type (in different versions) They repeated at least in a few days. Test furnishings were diverse. It could be a direct contact when the monkey and a man were sitting next to the floor among the pile of toys. In terms of such experiments, the experimenter put on a helmet, covering a person to be involved in the unwitting faith or a look to prompt the necessary action or subject (which was generally unlikely). In other experiments, also in order to avoid free or involuntary tips, the examiner was in the next room, watching what was happening through glass with one-sided visibility. In these cases, Kanzi also listened to the tasks through the headphones, and they were pronounced different peopleAnd sometimes even a speech synthesizer was used.

From the book Z. Zorina, I.I. Poletaeva "Elementary thinking of animals: Higher nervous activity and zoopsychology"

The study of the integrity of animals is important not only in itself, but also because it is closely related to the problem of the origin of human mental activity in the process of evolution. The ideas about the descent of animal thinking and the levels of its complexity have always been the subject of discussion and still continue to cause disagreements. At the same time, a huge number of facts have been accumulated to date, which convincingly indicate that some forms of elementary thinking are available in a fairly wide vertebral circle.
IN modern science Phenomena that relate to elementary rational activities remain the least studied, nevertheless, their description, analysis and integration into the general knowledge system of cognitive processes is very important. The fact is that the elementary thinking of animals is more than other cognitive processes, such as spatial memory, relative to the non-verbal thinking of a person. Over the past 15-20 years, a huge number of new and diverse data has been accumulated, which make it possible to more accurate the possibilities of thinking of animals, the degree of development of elementary thinking among representatives of different species, the degree of its proximity to human thinking.
To date, the following ideas about the thinking of animals are formulated.
- Elements of thinking are manifested in animals in different forms. This can be expressed in performing different operations, such as generalization, abstraction, comparison, logical conclusion, emergency decision due to operating empirical laws, etc.;
- reasonable acts in animals are associated with the processing of different types of sensory information (sound, olfactory, different types of visual, spatial, quantitative, geometric) in different functional areas - a sophisticative, defensive, social, parental, etc.
- Thinking animals is not just the ability to solve this or that task. This is a systemic property of the brain, with the higher the phylogenetic level of the animal and the corresponding structurally functional organization of its brain, the greater the range of intellectual possibilities it has.
Definitions of animal thinking.What criteria should answer the act of animal behavior so that it can be attributed to this category? Recall that as key we chose the definition of A.R. Luria, according to which "Act of thinking arises only when the subject has a corresponding motive that makes the task of the urgent, and the solution is necessary, and when the subject turns out to be in a situation regarding the exit of which he does not have Ready solution- The usual (i.e. acquired in the learning process) or congenital. "
In other words, we are talking about acts of behavior, the execution program should be created easyIn accordance with the terms of the task, and by nature does not require actions that represented samples and errors.
Human thinking is a multi-faceted process, which includes and developed to the level of symbolization, the ability to generalize and abstraction, and anticipating the new, and solving problems due to an emergency analysis of its conditions and identifying regular patterns. Animal thinking is a complex process that includes both the ability to emergency solve certain elementary logical tasks and the ability to generalize. In highly organized animals (in primates, dolphins, as well as vane birds), thinking is not limited to the ability to solve individual problems, but is a systemic function of the brain, which manifests itself when solving a variety of tests in the experiment and in a variety of situations in a natural habitat.
About method.To obtain an adequate assessment of the ability to RD (rational activity), an appropriate motivational state must be created in the tested animal. As a rule, experiments are carried out on hungry animals in food reinforcement, and it is desirable to select the most attractive bait for each individual. As you get used to the situation of experience, the degree of food deprivation makes less tough.
The question of what degree of starvation is permissible in such experiments, until recently decided purely empirically. However, in foreign laboratories installed rules for handling laboratory animals,which envisage, in particular, that they must maintain at least 80% of the normal weight. This rule enters the Codex of the Ethical Principles of the American Psychological Association.
At the same time, when working with higher mammals, it may be more appropriate to use non-food motivation, but aspirations for the game and environmental research. In particular, that the dolphins solve the task for operating the empirical dimension of the figures, not food, but the ball was used as the bait. Most of the experiments of American chimpanzee training researchers are carried out without food reinforcement, due to the satisfaction of their curiosity.
Study of animal ability to generalize and abstraction.Presented material shows that animals have different species, starting with ReptileTo one degree or another, the ability to transactions for generalization and abstraction was found and studied. This ability is used in the analysis and processing of signs of different character and modalities. The range of levels of generalization and abstraction in different animals is also quite wide. From the very beginning of research, this phenomenon existed two points of view on which levels of generalization are available to animals:
- "Uponizing" the level of generalization corresponds to the presentation of a number of authors that animals are capable only to abstraction in Concreto, "highlighting a feature in visually represented specific objects." According to these authors, the true abstraction of animals is not available, since they are "are not capable of establishing a mental connection between only the ideas and their combination into images."
- "Putvissance concepts" found in a number of animals confirm an alternative point of view expressed in the same years by other scientists who believed that not only chimpanzees, but also a number of other vertebrates are capable of high degrees of generalization, and even meetings of "symbolic thinking of man "
It is this second point of view that receives more and more new confirmations in modern studies.It is important to emphasize that the ability of the highest degrees of abstraction is found not only in human monkeys, but also from representatives of other mammalian detachments (dolphins), as well as in some species of birds (vanes, parrots). This fact cannot be considered unexpected, since it is confirmed by the data on the ability of these animals and to solve a number of elementary logical tasks.
The data obtained confirm the hypothesis that the ability to summarize was the basis of a human speech in the process of evolution.
Comparative characteristics and morphophysiological foundations of animal thinking.A modern study of any aspect of behavior only can be considered complete if the authors consider its development, mechanisms, evolution and adaptive importance, without limiting observations and descriptions. Some forms of thinking are quite primitive and occur in low-organized animals, others are more complex and accessible to the species most advanced in evolutionary development.
It is of interest to consider, at what stages of phylogenesis, they arose, as their complication occurred in an evolutionary series, and also find out what the features of the brain structure ensure the manifestation of one or another level of development of inconsions. "Complex learning" and the level of animal development.In numerous studies, it was repeatedly demonstrated that the speed, strength and "accuracy" of the formation of ordinary UR ( conditional reflexes) (both classical and instrumental) are quite close in vertebrates of different phylogenetic levels and practically does not depend on the complexity of the brain structure. To assess the degree of development of more complex cognitive functions, it was necessary to develop other learning procedures that would require the capture of the general "rule", the "algorithm" of solving the series of the same type of tasks. It was assumed that their use could reveal differences in training and cognitive processes that would correlate with the complexity of the brain structure.
In the laboratory, L. G. Voronin in the 60s in animals of different taxonomic groups (fishes, reptiles, birds and mammals) investigated the rate of formation of "chain" ur. It turned out that the "chains" of ur is easier to be produced and longer persist in animals with a more developed brain.
Method multiple alterations of UR.already in early work, convincingly showed that the success of learning as a whole depends on the level of the organization of the animal's brain, at least within large taxonomic groups. With consecutive alterations of the signal value of the incentive, the formation of each next UR in many mammals (including in rats) and certain types of birds is accelerated, i.e. the number of errors at each new signaling value of stimuli is gradually and rather significantly declined. Unlike them, fish has almost no acceleration. Thus, the ability to catch the general rule underlying the test is manifested in animals with a relatively primitive brain (rats, pigeons).
Formation of installation for trainingalso, it also made it possible to identify differences in learning abilities in animals of different species that correlate with the level of brain development. Most of the types of primates have a training for learning after the production of 150-200 differentiations. In other words, during this period, the proportion of the right elections already in the second presentation of new incentives (i.e. without additional training) comes up to 90%. Several more of these training series requires Belic Saymyiri, even more - marchs and cats. Unlike them, rats, chickens, pigeons and protein have the right answers in the second presentation of a new pair of incentives exceeded a random level for no more than 10-15% even after the production of 1,500 different differentiations. For rats, this test was meable available than the multiple alteration of the UR.
Vrani Birds - American Cyanocitta Cristata and Crows (Corvus Brachynchos), - as well as Skzorts-Main (Gracula Religiosa) in the speed of formation of the installation for training are superior to cats and Sayimiri and approach Martyshkovy monkeys. The rate of formation of the installation for training corresponds to the level of the organization of the brain: Low - in rodents, above - in predatory mammals and very high - in primates in general.
At the same time, within the detachment of primates there are certain differences in this indicator. Most successfully form "installation" man-like monkeys, with chimpanzees ahead of other anthropoids in this regard, including gorillas, and even low coefficient children intellectual Development.
Along with such obvious differences in the indicators of solutions that were found in chimpanzees and rodents, in many cases animals with a deliberately different organized brain (for example, cats and macales) demonstrate similar quantitative indicators of the installation formation. However, the differences between them are clearly detected, if you turn to the "qualitative" analysis, that is, to comparison strategies in solving this test. Such an analysis was conducted by D. Warren. Cats acted quite primitively. If, with the first presentation of a new pair of stimulus, the cat accidentally chose the "correct" stimulus, then there was an unmistakable, that is, he adhered to the strategy "succeeded - do also" (Win-Stay). With the unsuccessful choice, the cat could not adequately use the information received and the next time he chose at random, without using the strategy "lost - change the tactics" (Lose-Shift), and then he studied on the principle of "samples and errors".
In the same experiments, macaque resusions behaved differently. Even if, with the first presentation of a new pair of incentives, their choice was unsuccessful, then with the following samples, they almost always acted correctly. In other words, "failure" was perceived by Makaki not as an error, after which it is necessary to try again, but as a basis for changing the strategy of choice, i.e., they further acted according to the rule: "lost - change tactics." To, too, in contrast to cats, Makaki could flexibly move from one rule to another. This meant, apparently, they are able to completely catch the principle of the task. The same more advanced strategy for the formation of the "Installation" was shown by representatives of the vane birds - Coyeki: they reacted to new incentives correctly regardless of whether the choice in the first sample was positive or negative.
Intervidal differences are found in the training speed "Select the sample". If rats and pigeons require hundreds of combinations to form and strengthen the reaction of choice in similarity, then man-like monkeys need a much smaller period of training, and in some cases they are sufficiently first samples. The technique of learning the skill of choices "in contrainnce of the sample" is widely used in studies of learning and memory in rodents; It turned out to be suitable for assessing the peculiarities of the cognitive processes in transgenic mice.
When comparing the abilities of animals of different types of learning, simple conditioned reflexes are not detected. In tests on the ability to complex learning forms, when an animal should catch (understand) the general rule of choice, animals with a higher organized brain are achieved.
Comparative characteristics of the level of elementary rational activity (elementary thinking) in animals of different taxonomic groups. By the beginning of the 70s. Xx in. Experimental approaches have been formed, which allowed the systematic comparative studies of animal rations. Their feature was the use of animals of a large number of species under standard conditions using uniform, standard tests, the results of which are available to an accurate quantitative assessment. This made it possible to compare the indicators of the test of animals of different taxonomic groups and analyze the specifics of the mechanisms (strategies) underlying a solution to such a task, just as it was done when making strategies for solving a test for "installation".
Ability to extrapolation. The most complete comparative characteristic of the incidents was obtained using the test to the ability to extrapolation, as well as some other elementary logical tasks developed by L.V. Krushinsky. The task of interspecific comparisons was facilitated by the fact that there were methods for accurate quantitative assessment of the results of these tests.
The ability to extrapolation is available in many animals. At absolutely not able to solve this problem were only fish and amphibians. According to E.I. Ochif, the task for extrapolation successfully solved reptiles - turtles, caymans and green lizards. It should be noted that the turtles also identified the ability to generalize the distracted spatial signs.
The presence of reptiles to extrapolation and generalization indicates that the primitives of these forms of elementary thinking were formed at relatively early phases of phylogenesis.
The most fully ability to extrapolation was characterized by mammals. In this class, it is possible to observe a natural improvement in the solution of the majority of tests for rational activity. So, the rodents in general the ability to extrapolation is extremely limited, predatory mammals perfectly extrapolate, the primates have not been evaluated at the primates, and the dolphins it is highly developed.
Tests for operating the empirical dimension of the figures and acer-Krushshi.According to the views of L. V. Krushinsky, the ability to extrapolation of the direction of the food (or other biologically significant irritant) reflects only one of the possible parties to the use of animals. Another test - operating the empirical dimension of figures - based on the understanding of the geometric properties of objects. Its use made it possible to deepen the comparative characteristic of the inconsions of the studied species of animals. It can solve animals of only a few species. It is surprising that the predatory mammals will not cope with it (with the exception of bears). The vane birds solved the task at the level close to monkeys, bears and dolphins. These experiments, as well as the results of the study of the ability of vranny birds to generalize and symbolization, indicate the similarity of the level of inconsion of these birds and primates.
The Test of Revenue-Krushshi was designed to identify the ability of animals to urgently determine the position of the hidden bait based on information about its movement obtained during the test. All the studied species (rats, vane birds, some types of lower monkeys and man-like monkeys) behave almost the same - unmistakably solve the problem only in isolated cases, but all animals (and rats, and primates) are able to optimize the search within the first test.
Along with the ability to emergency reorganization of independent skills, the Revenue Test-Krushshi is another form of rational activity available to low-organized animals - rats.
"Graduations" of elementary thinking.The ability to extrapolation directions of the movement of the edible stimulus disappearing from the field of view was found from representatives of reptiles, mammals and birds, but expressed in varying degrees. On this basis, L. V. Krushinsky allocated several gradations to the degree of its development: they differed not only in quantitative indicators (from 65% of some lines of mice to 90% in predatory mammals), but also by the ability to solve various complicated options for this task. The appearance of data on the ability to solve the problem for operating the empirical dimension of figures allowed us to give an even more detailed description of the level of development of elementary thinking.
L. V. Krshinsky expressed the hypothesis that the complication of the incidental activities of animals in the process of evolution was due to an increase in the number of "empirical laws", which can operate the animal, and, therefore, grew the number of elementary logical tasks that they were able to decide.
Based on this, Krushinsky believed that for the comparative characteristic of animals, the batteries of various tests should be used. The results of the study of elementary thinking of animals, accumulated to date have shown the fruitfulness and informativeness of this approach.
Elementary thinking of animals is examined with two groups of tests. The first of them evaluates the ability of the animal to solve the problem in an emergency insertion based on the understanding of the logical structure of the problem (such tasks include an extrapolation test). L. V. Krushinsky proposed a set (or battery) of various complexity tests for a comprehensive assessment of elementary intelligence activities of animals. His work allowed us to identify the gradations of such abilities in a row of vertebrates. The second test group analyzes animal abilities to generalize and abstraction. The data obtained in animal training experiments to multiple alterations and "Installation for training" also revealed gradations of these abilities in animals of different levels of the organization and showed a similar nature of the differences between different taxonomic groups
Mammals.Rodents are characterized
lower gradation of elementary thinking. The ability to extrapolation was found in wild rats-Pumps, some genetic groups of mice and beavers, and in most cases the correct decisions only slightly exceed the random level. However, these solutions in their mechanism are fundamentally different from learning similar task and are manifestations more difficult than training cognitive ability. Along with a weak ability to extrapolation, rodents have an extremely limited ability to generalize, and they cannot form installations for training. At the same time, some cognitive tasks are available to them - rats are capable of solving problems on emergency reorganization of independently formed skills and to optimize the strategy when searching for bait in the test of Reven-Krushinsky.
TO next gradationrelate predatorymammals. All the studied views of this squad (cats, dogs, wolves, foxes, sands, bears) successfully solve the task for extrapolation. This coincides with their pronounced ability to form the installation for training and to a sufficiently high level of generalizations. At the same time, it is important to emphasize that most of the predatory mammals are not capable of solving the test to operate the dimension of the figures. This objectively reflects the specifics of their cognitive abilities and the difference in the level of development of predatory from primates.
The following (3) gradationelementary thinking can be detected from higher organized mammals - monkeys and dolphins. Dolphins are well extrapolated the direction of the movement of the stimulus, which is consistent with the data on their ability to rapidly form the installation for training, to high degrees of generalization and other complex cognitive functions
Birds.Under the class of birds, the ability to extrapolation with mammals with mammals are found - from its complete absence of pigeons to a high level of its development (at the level of predatory mammals and dolphins) in vane birds. Painting birds (Falco Tinunculus, F. Vespertilus, Pernis Aviporus and others. Types) occupy an intermediate position: they have a level of successful solutions at the first presentation only slightly (although reliably) exceeds random.
This characteristic becomes more complete and convincing in comparison with data on other types of elementary thinking in vane and pigeons.
Vranified birdsreach the level of primates in the following types of cognitive tests:
- by speed and strategy of education for training;
- by the ability to operate the empirical dimension of figures;
- by the possibility of the formation of endangeal concepts;
- By the ability to use characters.
Unlike them, pigeons are significantly more primitively organized representatives of the bird class. They are not capable of solving elementary logical tasks, to form the installation for training and have an extremely limited ability to the pre-exchange level of generalization. Nevertheless, even they have the ability to solve the most simple task - to emergency integration of independently educated skills.
The ability to extrapolation is a relatively universal cognitive function, to one degree or another accessible to a wide range of vertebrate species, starting with reptiles. Thus, the very first and primitive biological prerequisites of human thinking arose in the early stages of vertebrate phylogenesis.
Highly organized animals are capable of solving a larger number of cognitive tests, and coped with more complex logical tasks. This corresponds to the ideas of L. V. Krushinsky that the evolution of elementary rational activity of animals was apparently in the direction of an increase in the number of laws that the animal can operate.
Operation and complexity of the structure of the brain.L.V. Krushinsky and his staff in the 70s of the twentieth century have taken a study of the morphusiological foundations of elementary intelligence activities of animals. These works included a comparison of the complexity of the structure of the highest associative structures of the front brain of birds and mammals with the level of development of their ability to occur. On the basis of such comparisons, an experimental study of the role of individual brain formations in the ability to extrapolation and in learning ability was undertaken. A number of experimental work were specially devoted to the comparison of animal ability to solve elementary logical tasks and learning.
"Cefalization", the complexity of the neural structure and the level of rational activity.In the laboratory, L. V. Krushshi was studied the relationship of the complexity of the organization of the brain and the overall level of evolutionary development in the classes of birds and mammals. Neuromorphological data accumulated by the 70s of the twentieth century, indicated that the cefalization index - the relative amount of the highest sections of the brain (the new bark in mammals and hyper-and non-evolution of birds) is growing as the level of evolutionary development of the form increases. L. V. Kurshinsky showed that both birds and mammals, the degree of cephalization within each class of vertebrates represents a significant parameter that determines the level of development of inconsions.
A. Portman received the following values \u200b\u200bof the relative volume indices of the birds of the birds: Pigeon -4.0; Chicken - 3.27; Duck (Anas Platirhinchos) - 6.08, Falcon (Falco Tinninculus) - 8.24, Kanyuk (Buteo Buteo) - 9.78; Forty (Pica Pica) - 15.81; Corvus frugilegus - 15.68; Crow (C. CoroNe) - 15.38.
Mammals also detects the dependence between the level of development of elementary rational activity and the relative size of the brain. L. V. Krushinsky cites the following quadratic indicator of the brain (according to Ya. Roginsky) for a number of mammals: mouse - 0.0088; rat - 0, 0123, rabbit - 0, 0705; Cat - 0.195; Dog - 0,464. Primates and dolphins possess the most differentiated and large brain among mammals.
In a row of mammals, an increase in the area of \u200b\u200bassociative zone of large hemispheres occurs, in particular the prefrontal (frontal) area. It is also an indicator of the complication of the structure of the highest departments of the brain. The same pattern is also described in relation to associative areas of the bird brain.
In this regard, another important circumstance should be noted. Comparative studies L. V. Kroshinsky and his staff showed that there is no direct and indispensable connection between the degree of development of elementary rational activity and the level of development of a new bark. " The bird's brain is built by a different plan than the mammalian brain. In the process of philogenesis of special development, they have achieved special, absent in mammals, streaming departments, while mammals have formed new bark. It is at the expense of these departments of the striatum that increased the volume of the hemispheres and the front brain of the vane birds
Along with the increase in the relative sizes of the highest sections of the brain, another important factor determining the degree of development of rationality should be considered neural organization brain. In the phylogenetic series of vertebrates, an increase in the diversity of the neural brain structure is observed, with a progressive increase in the number of so-called star neurons, as well as the complication of contact systems between neurons. The features of the cytoarchitectonics of the front brain of crows and pigeons were revealed.
A particularly complex structure is the neurons of the hyperstritum of the croron. They have longer and more winding dendrites, which determines the larger number of contacts with other cells. The number of spines on dendrites is also much larger than on dendrites of the neurons of the brain pigeon.
The specific feature of the structure of the brain of birds is the so-called multine-line complexes. These are cellular associations of a complex spatial structure consisting of apparently from functionally related nervous elements. Studies demonstrate a specific structure of such multine-line complexes: the raven they may include up to 20 neurons, in pigeons to 10.
In two classes of vertebrate - mammals and birds - the complication of the structure of the brain in a number of species, correlates with an increase in the level of development of their elementary thinking. It can be traced in increasing the number of tests that are more developed animals are able to solve, and in increasing their complexity.
Comparison of ability to extrapolation and learning. The role of environmental factors in the success of testing tests. The solution of elementary logical tasks, even with their repeated presentations, is an independent phenomenon, in nature, different from other forms of individual-adaptive behavior, in particular from instrumental learning. This is evidenced by differences in animal behavior in control tests, which, in their structure, are similar to the elementary logical task, except that they did not have a logical structure. It is impossible to "decide" such a test during the first presentation, it can be achieved only by learning by samples and errors.
In the behavior of mice, when teaching the skill of finding the disappeared feed and, when solving the extrapolation test, also turned out to be essential. A group of mice, chromosomal mutation carriers, in which the proportion of the proper extrapolation test solutions significantly exceeded a random level. Their behavior was compared with the mice of the SPE line, which solved the test at 50% of the random level.
In the extrapolation test, the mouse can monitor the direction of the feed disappearance, then goes either in the "right" direction - towards the disappearance of the feed, to the corresponding side opening in the chamber wall, or in the opposite direction. A control test for training skill to bypass the screen from a certain side was carried out in the same chamber as the study of the ability to extrapolation, and was similar to an extrapolation test on the structure. The mouse also started drinking milk from the drinker, which was closed from her (that is, as in the main test, access to the stern was stopped), but no movement of the feeder in the field of view did not occur. Reinforcement mouse always found about one of the side of the holes. After that, she again approached the central opening, etc., 10 times in an experienced day.
Already after three days of training in both groups of both groups, the approach time has decreased, they have formed a tool tool for reinforcement. In the extrapolation tests for the same period, the time of approach to drinking in mice of different groups has changed differently: in "capable" to extrapolation of mice with chromosomal mutation, it has not changed, whereas in unable mice of si it decreased.

Z. A. Zorina, A. A. Smirnova

What did the "speaking" monkeys told? Are the highest animals able to operate with symbols?

Moscow state University them. M. V. Lomonosov

Department of Biology

Department of Higher Nervous Activities

Scientific editor I. I. Poletaeva

Zoya Alexandrovna Zorina

Doctor of Biological Sciences. Heads the physiology laboratory and genetics of the behavior of animals of the Department of Higher Nervous Activities of the Biological Faculty of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov. It studies the elementary thinking of animals, including the ability to generalize and symbolize the birds, reads lectures in Moscow State University and a number of institutions. The author of the monograph and a number of printed works on the incidents of the birds, as well as the textbooks "Fundamentals of Etology and Genetics of Conduct" (M., 1999/2002, in co-authorship); "Zoopsychology: an elementary thinking of animals" (M., 2001/2003, together with I. I. Filetaeva) and the popular book "The behavior of animals" in the series "I will know the world" (M., 2001, together with I. I. Filetaevaya ).

Anna Anatolyevna Smirnova

Candidate of Biological Sciences, Senior Researcher of the Laboratory of Physiology and Genetics of Animal Behavior Department of Higher Nervous Activities of the Biological Faculty of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov. He is engaged in experimental study of animal thinking.

Are they talking or monkey? (preface publisher)

0. The idea of \u200b\u200bpublishing this book was suggested by one TV show Alexander Gordon, which carried out a wonderful project a few years ago: a series of interviews with domestic scientists, which lively and accessible form told about their research and related issues related to these studies. The transfer was devoted to the abilities of man-like monkeys to understand and use the natural (human) language. In it, famous scientists Dr. Biol. Sciences Z. A. Zorina (researcher of intelligent behavior of animals) and the doctor of historical sciences M. L. Butovskaya (a specialist in the field of anthropology and fusion of primates) talked about the most interesting achievements of foreign, mainly American, biologists in this area.

I will give only two episodes from this conversation - as they are described already in the present book.

1. In the first episode, it was about the experiment of American scientists, the couple of Alan and Beatrice Gardner, who in 1966 they took to live in their family a 10-month female chimpanzee named Washo. Their goal was to find out whether the chimpanzee is able to master the simplest elements of the mediator language as a simplified language of American deafness gestures (as you know, the anthropoid voice apparatus is not adapted to reproduce the sounds of human speech).

Washo accurately distinguished the sign of his own name and pronoun 1. She regularly used gestures "me", "I", "You" and the most strongest pronouns - "mine", "yours" (these were different signs).<…> She presented a good difference between the current subject and the object of his actions and showed this understanding when using not only the names of their own, but also pronoun. Addressing some request, Washo put "you" before "me" in 90% of cases: "You will release"; "You give me", but "I will give you." When I was talking to her signs "I tackle you," she was waiting for her to tickle. But when she was told "You tick me", she, in turn, rushed to tickle the interlocutor.<…>

Washo ... very quickly summarized one of his first signs "Open" and spontaneously transferred it to a large number of objects (referents). For example, Okosho initially trained this sign in relation to the opening of three specific doors. Not immediately, but she spontaneously began to use it to open all doors, including the doors of refrigerators and a buffet ... Then she applied this sign to open all the containers, including boxes, boxes, briefcases, bottles, saucepan. In the end, she made a real discovery - she filed this sign when she needed to turn the water tap!

Finishing barcode -

... The ability to use gestures in a figurative value. So, Washo "called" the minister who did not give her a long time to drink, "dirty jack", and the word "dirty" was obviously used not in the sense of "blurred", but as a sword. In other cases, different chimpanzees and gorillas attributed "dirty" to homeless cats, annoying gibbons and a hated leash for walking. Coco (Gorilla. - A. K.) Also called one of the servants "you are dirty bad toilet" (p. 159-163).

communicating with people, monkeys are so succeeded in the perception of non-verbal aspects of communication, which is often guessing about the intentions of the speaker, in fact, not understanding the meaning of words. S. Savage-Rambo illustrates this by a good example: if you follow the "soapy opera" with a sound off, then you almost always understand the meaning of what we are talking about. The ability to "read" information in a specific situation from different sources, including gestures, views, actions, intonation and knowledge of the same circumstances already visiting, monkeys are developed very well. From here it is often born that they understand words, because, focused primarily in the language, people forget about the existence of other information channels (p. 224).

To receive such confirmation, S. Savage-Rambo conducted a unique experiment that allowed

compare an understanding of the Pronounced sentences from Kanzi and a child - Girls Ali.<…> At the beginning of testing (it lasted from May 1988 to February 1989), Kansi was 8 years old, and Ale 2 years. They were offered a total of 600 oral tasks, each time new, in which words, and syntactic structures were systematically changed in each sample. The phrases of one type (in different versions) were repeated at least than a few days later. Test furnishings were diverse. It could be a direct contact when the monkey and a man were sitting next to the floor among the pile of toys. In terms of such experiments, the experimenter put on a helmet, covering a person to be involved in the unwitting faith or a look to prompt the necessary action or subject (which was generally unlikely). In other experiments, also in order to avoid free or involuntary tips, the examiner was in the next room, watching what was happening through glass with one-sided visibility. In these cases, Kansi also listened to tasks through headphones, and they uttered different people, and sometimes even a synthesizer of speech.

In the overwhelming majority of cases, Kanzi, without any special workout, the new instructions performed each time. Below we give typical examples.

Put the bunch in the microwave;

Get juice from the refrigerator;

Give potato turtle;

Get a handkerchief from Pocket H.

In this case, part of the tasks were given in two versions, the meaning of which changed depending on the word order in the sentence:

Go outside and find carrots there;

I get a carrot on the street;

Pour coca-cola in lemonade;

Pour lemonade in Coca-Cola.

Many phrases addressed to him provoked the commission of unusual (or even punishable) actions with conventional objects:

Issue toothpaste on a hamburger;

Find a dog and make it an injection;

Nashable gorilla opening for cans;

Let the snake (toy) bite the linda (employee), etc.

Daily classes with Kansi were constantly aimed at revealing the limits of his understanding of what was happening again and again. For example, during a walk, he could ask for:

Pick up pine needles in a backpack;

Put the ball on the needles,

and in a few days:

Mound needles on the ball.

<…> Achievements of Canzzi undoubtedly confirmed the ability of chimpanzees to spontaneous understanding of the syntax. It turned out that, like his colleague on the experiment, the girl Alya, he almost unmistakably understood all the proposed questions and tasks. On average, Kanzi performed 81% of tasks correctly, while Ala is 64% (p. 233-237).

The problem of biological root of behavior and human psyche throughout the twentieth century. It was one of the most relevant psychology and evolutionary teaching. She did not lose her relevance and now. In Russia, the exploits of research in this area stood the hope of Nikolaevna Ladygin-Kotce (1889-1963).

N.N. Ladygina-Kotu is considered - and it is completely true - one of the founders of domestic zoopsychology and comparative psychology. However, Nadezhda Nikolaevna made a huge contribution to the emergence and development and a number of other areas that were made as independently later, including after her death.

Ladygin-Kotce stood at the origins of modern cognitive science. This new and rapidly developing complex direction was finally imposed in Russia in the very early XXI in. Cognitive science is an area of \u200b\u200binterdisciplinary research of knowledge, understood as a combination of the processes of acquisition, storage, transformation and use of knowledge by alive and artificial systems. To combine specialists of various profiles that study these problems, the Interregional Association for Cognitive Research (MAKI) was organized in our country. Three international conferences demonstrated the fruitfulness of this unification of philosophers, linguists, physiologists of higher nervous activity, psychologists (including specialists in the field of comparative psychology), as well as researchers of artificial intelligence, specialists in robotics and simulators of living systems. Studies of cognitive (or cognitive, on the terminology of N.N. Ladygin-Kots) The activities of the animals are organically entering this complex, and the hope itself Nikolaevna has become the predecessor of this direction. Spent ladygina-kott deep comparative analysis Viospecific behavior of a child and a chimpanzee, as well as a comparative study of instincts in many species of vertebrates should be attributed to the sources of human ethology, which at that time it simply did not exist as a science.

Nadezhda Nikolaevna Ladyginina was born in Penza 6 (19) of May 1889. Grandfather was a serf, but a competent and enterprising person who was bought out on the will of literally on the eve of the abolition of serfdom, and his father was educated and taught music and singing in the Penza Art School. In 1908 N.N. Ladygin graduated with honors from the Penza gymnasium and entered the highest female courses in Moscow, on the zoological cycle of the natural branch of the physico-mathematical faculty, which graduated from 1917

Pupils N.N. Ladygina-Kots, our senior contemporaries, major psychologists (S.L. Novoselova, D.B. Bogoyavlenskaya, L.I. Antsiferova, L.A. Paramonov, etc.) perceived it as a velier of the spirit of Russian pre-revolutionary intelligentsia, "continuation silver century" At the meeting held in 1999 in the State Darwinian Museum of the meeting, dedicated to the 110th anniversary of Nikolaevna's hope, who speakers celebrated the amazing strength of the Spirit of this woman, said that "she radiated the aura of morality, which donated everyone around."

N.N. Ladygin-Kotz and her son R.A. Cotto while reading a lecture hard to wounded fighters and medical personnel in the House of Hospital, posted at the Museum (1941)

Elder N.N. Ladygina-Kotce was also completely outstanding. Svetlana Leonidovna Novoselova, who came to Ladygina-Kotu still a student, writes: "Nadezhda Nikolaevna was a real beauty with an inspired face, a lush wave of beautiful hair. In his youth and in mature years, she romantically dressed up, was in society. Over the years, the external appearance of Hope Nikolaevna became stricter, but simplicity, grace and a special style of welcoming, but distant passage of the magnificent Russian woman of the end of the XIX - early XX century. Preserved in it to the end. "

As you know, the highest female courses were a very serious university, where the largest specialists were taught, including Professor MSU, who left him for political reasons. For example, the course of experimental biology was read by N.K. Rings. Already in the first year, the interest of Nikolaevna's hope for the problems of the development of the psyche and behavior of animals, closely related to its interest in evolutionary teaching and Darwinism, was bright. This was facilitated by brilliant lectures of the young professor-evolutionist A.F. Cots.

Lectures he accompanied his demonstration already then an extensive collection of exhibits illustrating the theory of origin of species. It was this collection that was the basis of the modern Darwinian museum founded by A.F. Kotto in 1907

In 1911 N.N. Ladygin became a wife A.F. Cots. It was not just a friendly married couple, but an union of like-minded people, and common business The Darwinian Museum became their lives. With its organization, the formation and functioning is closely and organically connected and all scientific activity N.N. Ladygina-Kotu. Spouses gave the museum all their time, all the energy. In addition to the vast work on the organization of exposure, collecting and analyzing collections, throughout life, even being already world-famous scientists, spouses Kotce drove tours of the museum for the most varying public. These could be large foreign scientists (for example, R.Yerks, I. DEMBOVSKY, E.Klapired, etc.), could be ordinary schoolchildren or the wounded hospital located in the museum building during the Great Patriotic War. Much of attention Spouses Cott paid to cubinzers - members of a mug of young biologists Zoo, who led their colleague P.P. Smolin.

State Darwin Museum. On the right - the building opened in 1995, on the left - repository and exhibition halls open in 2007

Their marriage is one of the striking love Story. length in half a century.

In 1995, the exposition of the State Darwinian Museum was opened for visitors in a new, separate building. This was the fulfillment of the dreams and tireless care of the spouses Kotto, which was not able to achieve this during life. In 2007, for his century, the museum received another new building as a gift - the Fist Issoc.

On replenishment of collections, the spouses spent all their modest means. So, the stuffed wolves of Melanist and Albino were bought for money donated to them on the device at home.

In the Darwinian Museum there is a huge photo archive, captured the beauty of N.N. Ladygina-Kotu in the most exotic costumes, interiors and accessories [see also: Shubina Yu.V. Century of the Darwin Museum in facts and photos. - M., 2008]. Many of these pictures were made by A.F. Kotto, who was engaged in photography on a very high, almost professional level.

In 2009 marks 120 years since the birth of N.N. Ladygina-Kotu. In honor of this event, the exposition of biographical materials was updated in the Darwinian Museum. On the birthday of hopes, Nikolaevna in the museum opened an exhibition of drawings created by monkeys collected by the Czech primatologist MA Vanchatoy. The subject of the exhibition is related to the fact that N.N. Ladygin-Kotz was the first researcher who discovered the chimpanzee ability to draw.

Own scientific activity N.N. Ladygina-Kots began in student years. In 1913 she managed to buy a two-year-old young chimpanzee ion, who lived in her family as a receptional child. For 2.5 years (until the death of ioni from infection in 1916), she regularly observed and with all the details registered his behavior. The results of this work were summarized in 3 monographs. Two of them - "Study cognitive abilities Chimpanzee "(1923) and the" Chimpanzee Chimpanzee and Child in their instincts, emotions, games, habits and expressive movements "(1935) - were published, and the third," the ability of chimpanzees to distinguishing the shape, quantity, quantity, to the account, Analysis and to the synthesis "of the hope of Nikolaevna publish never succeeded, although she gave her great importance. Unfortunately, at present, the manuscript of this monograph is lost ...

Subsequently, N.N. Ladygin-Kotu appealed to various aspects of animal behavior and worked with different objects, not limited to the study of the psyche of anthropoids and other primates. The sphere of its interests included a comparative study of ontogenesis of behavior and instincts in a variety of species of mammals and birds. In the early 1920s She founded a zoopsychological laboratory under the Darwinian Museum and conducted a number of comparative examination of thinking (the ability to "account") in several types of mammals and birds. Also in the 1920s. She spent a job in the Moscow Zoo, the director of which was at that time A.F. Cotto. A large series of studies was devoted to the ontogenesis of the behavior of predatory mammals (wolves, foxes, tigers), which Nadezhda Nikolaevna patiently fed and tamed. So, for example, she explored the wolves color vision - the question to which biologists returned only now. The results of these works provided a base for deep generalizations and fundamental conclusions, in particular, the conclusions that the elementary thinking of animals is the prototype of human thinking.

Fruitfulness of works N.N. Ladygina-Kotce is largely due to the originality of the methodology used by it - both in general approaches and in private methods. Nadezhda Nikolaevna considered himself a sequence of Darwin and in his work was based on wide and diverse comparisons - higher and lower primates, anthropoids and people, primates and other mammals, etc.

The second most important factor was the implementation of a biological approach (or biopsychological method, according to V. Vagneru) to the study of the psyche of animals. This approach suggested that the biological features of the considered type and the choice of a biologically adequate research method. Now it seems to be granted, but the beginning of the twentieth century. demanded from the struggle researcher both against anthropomorphism and against the "Mechanization of the Psyche", against "information of it to purely physicochemical processes without taking into account mental elements in natural conditions animal life "[ Ladygin-Kots N.N. The study of the cognitive abilities of chimpanzees. - M., 1923]. Nadezhda Nikolaevna resolutely performed against those who, "by gluing the reflex label to all the manifestations of the psyche (from the lower to the highest forms), the animal to the role of the machine" [ibid]. Following Wagner, she defended the need to introduce phylogenetic and ontogenetic methods into comparative psychological research, "the possibility of fruitful transfer of the basic principles of evolution from the field of morphological sciences to zoopsychology" [ibid].

To study the psyche of chimpanzees, Nadezhda Nikolaevna applied the method of learning "choice for a sample" when an identical pattern should choose an identical pattern from several proposed objects. In the Darwinian Museum, kinocadras were preserved, recorded, as experienced experiences with ion.

This method took in world science as a solid place as the method of conditional reflexes, and throughout the twentieth century was successfully applied and applied worldwide to study the most diverse aspects of cognitive activity not only primates, but also other mammals, as well as birds. It was originally used to assess the sensory abilities - perception of color, forms, etc. However, Ladygin-Kots noted that this method is not focused on analyzing individual signs, but on more high level Reflections to identify the relationship between the sample and one of the incentives for choice. Therefore, he gradually became a tool for studying more complex cognitive functions - generalizations, abstraction, symbolization, etc.

N.N. Ladygin-Kotce while experience with chimpanzees ion: choice for sample letter A (Ladygina-Kots, 1923)

It is in this capacity that this technique is used in the laboratory of physiology and genetics of behavior founded by L.V. Krushinsky at the Biological Faculty of Moscow State University. Thanks to the works of A.A. Smirnova managed to detect the ability of vane birds to form a trustistic concept of "similarity", absorb symbols-numeral. Of particular interest is the ability of rawn to be detected by this method to one of the logical output operations - identify an analogy in the structure of two-component incentives. These cognitive abilities were previously described only in anthropoids.

Gradually changed the design of the experiment. Initially, the experience occurred with the direct contact of the experimenter with experimental animals. Over the years, experiences have appeared, which excluded the possibility of direct contact capable of affecting the results. Experiments adapted for different animals and different tasks. Currently, there are a variety of automatic learning systems, use sensitive to touch computers.

Another method that is firmly established in world science thanks to N.N. Ladygina-Kotce is a systemic study of the behavior and the psyche of the young anthropoid when they upbringing them in human families. The experiment of hope Nikolaevna was repeated by a number of psychologists (K. and K. Hayes, L. and U.Kellog, R. Jerks) in 1930-1950, and he received special development in the 1970s. In projects for learning monkeys by simple unbroken analogues of human speech.

It should be noted that the authors of "language projects" invariably referred to the "Chimpanzee Chimpanzee" (even before the translation of the book on english In 2001), because it is N.N. Ladygin-Kots first described the "conditional language" of communicating ion with people and analyzed the question of the possibility of communicating a person and anthropoid.

Completing a brief story about scientific biography N.N. Ladygina-Kotce, I would like to mention that her works were widely fame and recognition and homeland, and abroad. She was awarded the Order of Lenin, her anniversaries were always solemnly celebrated.

She had a huge impact on contemporaries and raised several major researchers. Her students K.E. Fabry and S.L. Novoselova fruitfully developed a number of aspects of animal cognitive activities.

Svetlana Leonidovna Novoselova (1933-2005), doctor of psychological sciences, a valid member of the Raen, head of the laboratory of the game and the developing environment of the Scientific Center "Preschool Childhood". A.V. Zaporozhets, a member of the editorial board "Personality Development", Council of the Moscow Branch of the Russian Psychological Society, Vice-President of the Russian International Organization for Preschool Education, began working with N.N. Ladygina-Kotce still in student years. Svetlana Leonidovna is the author of several monographs (including the "intellectual basis for the development of primates", 2000; "Genetically early forms of thinking", 2001), which can be considered as the development of comparative studies of hope Nikolaevna. S.L. Novoselova wrote a wonderful article "N.N. Ladygin-Kots - the pride of domestic science "for the collection" Outstanding Psychologists of Moscow "(2007). In this article, she talentedly painted the portrait of Hope Nikolaevna not only as a major scientist, but also as an outstanding personality.

Kurt Ernestovich Fabry (1923-1990) was not a student, but like-minded person, admirer and successor of N.N. Ladygina-Kotz, who provided him with serious support in difficult periods of his life. He completed numerous comparative studies of different aspects of animal behavior (including manipulation and gaming activity), and in 1976 published the first textbook "Basics of Zoopsychology", which is still reprinted by his student K.PSh.n. N.N. Basic and used by students when studying behavior and psyche of animals.

On the continuing influence of N.N. Lady-kotce on modern domestic science may indicate the work of its so-called "scientific granddaughters". So called students K.E. Fabry, doctors of science M.A. Dreagina, M.L. Butovo, G.G. Philippov, which intensively work in different areas of zoo and comparative psychology. They own a number of monographs and textbooks on zoopsychology, ethology, primatology. We list for example some of them:

Filipova G.G. "Zoopsychology and comparative psychology", "Maternity Psychology";
Dryagin MA"Systematics of primates", "vertebral manipulation activity";
Butovo M.L. "Body language", "Floor Secrets";
Butovo M.L., Dryagina M.A. "Systematics and behavior of primates";
Butovo M.L. and etc. "Aggression and peaceful coexistence: mechanisms for monitoring social tensions in humans" and others.

Photos are given with the kind permission of the leadership of the State Darwinian Museum.

Based on the materials of the article: Zorina Z.A. At the sources of comparative psychology and human ethology: Proceedings N.N. Ladygina-Kotu // Bulletin NSU. Series Psychology. 2008. T. 2. Vol. 2. P. 10-27.

Novoselova S.L. N.N. Ladygin-Kots - Pride of the Patriotic Science / Sat. "Outstanding psychologists of Moscow" // Ed. V.V. Rubtsova and M.G. Yaroshevsky. - M.: Psychological Institute RAO, 2007. - P. 243-254.

See for example: Zorin Z.A. On thinking of animals // Biology. 2003. No. 25-26; Zorina Z.A., Smirnova A.A. What told the "talking" monkeys. (Are higher animals able to operate with symbols). - M.: Yask, 2006; Zorina Z.A., Smirnova A.A. Study of the biological predecessors of human speech in modern anthropoids // Biology. 2007. No. 13-14, etc.

Intermediary languages \u200b\u200b- For more details, see Zorina Z.A., Smirnova A.A. What told the "talking" monkeys. (Are higher animals able to operate with symbols). - M.: Yask, 2006; Zorina Z.A., Smirnova A.A. Study of the biological predecessors of human speech in modern anthropoids // Biology. 2007. № 13-14.