Detailed solution Paragraph § 12 on social studies for 11th grade students, authors L.N. Bogolyubov, N.I. Gorodetskaya, L.F. Ivanova 2014

Question 1. Does every person need economic culture? Economic freedom: anarchy or responsibility? Where are the limits of economic freedom? Is it beneficial to be honest?

Economic culture – a system of values ​​and motivations economic activity, respectful attitude towards any form of ownership and commercial success as a great social achievement, success, rejection of “egalitarian” sentiments, creation and development social environment for entrepreneurship, etc.

Economic freedom is limited by the laws of the country. There is a list of prohibited items, such as drugs. There is an obligation to pay taxes, an obligation to obtain a license in order to trade certain goods.

Questions and tasks for the document

The author warns us that any stagnation and inconsistency of various spheres of society (subsystems of society) threatens the country with big problems, including falling into the background, that is, the loss of its leading position in the world, as well as such an unstable situation threatens the Russian people exploitation by other more developed countries.

Question 2. Does Russia need a new sociocultural order?

It is undoubtedly needed now, because we have recently moved away from the idea of ​​socialism. Now the entire social system, as well as the consciousness of people, must get rid of the remnants of the past.

Question 3. What previous cultural accumulations associated with the command economy could be consigned to the “historical dustbin”?

Each person should receive according to their abilities, otherwise talented people simply will not have an incentive for self-development, and this again threatens stagnation. Secondly, the emphasis is on fulfilling the plan (quantity), and not on quality - hence the same result - stagnation, excess production (no one takes low-quality products).

Question 4. Based on the text of the paragraph, suggest the values ​​of the “new economy” that would become significant elements economic culture XXI century

The main directions of state innovation policy in the conditions of the “new economy” are:

Improving the innovation environment by strengthening the innovative component in all areas national politicians and their integration;

Stimulating market demand for innovation and using the concept of “leading” markets, which involves supporting markets that are most receptive to innovation;

Stimulating innovation in the public sector, overcoming the bureaucratic conservatism of the public administration;

Strengthening regional innovation policy and expanding cooperation.

SELF-TEST QUESTIONS

Question 1. What are the main elements of economic culture?

The economic culture of a society is a system of values ​​and motives for economic activity, the level and quality of economic knowledge, assessments and human actions, as well as the content of traditions and norms governing economic relations and behavior. The economic culture of an individual is an organic unity of consciousness and practical activity. It determines the direction of human economic activity in the process of production, distribution and consumption. The economic culture of an individual may correspond to the economic culture of society, advance it, but may also lag behind it.

In the structure of economic culture, the most important elements can be identified and presented in the following diagram:

The basis of an individual’s economic culture is consciousness, and economic knowledge is its important component. This knowledge represents a set of ideas about production, exchange, distribution and consumption material goods, the influence of economic life on the development of society, about ways and forms, methods that contribute to the sustainable development of society. Modern production and economic relations require the employee to have a large and constantly increasing amount of knowledge.

Question 2. What is the significance of the economic orientation and social attitudes of the individual?

A person actively uses the accumulated knowledge in everyday activities, therefore an important component of his economic culture is economic thinking. It allows you to understand the essence economic phenomena and processes, operate with learned economic concepts, analyze specific economic situations.

The effectiveness of solving economic problems largely depends on the socio-psychological qualities of participants in economic activity. Among them, it is necessary to highlight such an important element of economic culture as the economic orientation of the individual, the components of which are the needs, interests and motives of human activity in the economic sphere. Personality orientation includes social attitudes and socially significant values. So, in Russian society attitudes towards the study of modern economic theory and participation in solving various economic problems are formed. The system has been developed value orientations personality, including economic freedom, competition, respect for any form of property, commercial success as a social achievement.

Social attitudes play an important role in the development of an individual’s economic culture. A person who has, for example, developed an attitude towards creative work, participates in activities with great interest, supports innovative projects, introduces technical achievements, etc. Such results will not be achieved by a formed attitude towards a formal attitude towards work.

Question 3: Is self-interest the only basis for economic choice?

Economic interest is a person’s desire to obtain the benefits necessary to ensure life. Interests express ways and means of meeting people's needs. For example, making a profit (which is the economic interest of an entrepreneur) is a way to satisfy a person’s personal needs and production needs. Interest turns out direct cause human actions.

In most cases, yes, because a person cannot be forced to do something he does not like. Other people can only show a person's interest in something else. But the main choice remains with the person himself.

Question 4. What determines a person’s choice of standard? economic behavior?

The choice of a standard of economic behavior depends on the quality of the factors influencing it and on personal economic viability. The choice of standards of behavior in the economy and the effectiveness of solving economic problems largely depend on the socio-psychological qualities of participants in economic activity. Among them important element economic culture is the economic orientation of the individual, the components of which are the needs, interests and motives of human activity in the economic sphere. Personality orientation includes social attitudes and socially significant values.

Question 5: Should economic freedom be limited?

Economic freedom includes freedom to make decisions and actions. An individual has the right to decide what type of activity is preferable for him (hired work, entrepreneurship, etc.), what form of ownership participation seems more appropriate to him, in what area and in what region of the country he will show his activity. The market, as is known, is based on the principle of economic freedom. The consumer is free to choose a product, manufacturer, and forms of consumption. The manufacturer is free to choose the type of activity, its volume and forms.

The limits within which economic freedom serves production efficiency are determined by specific historical circumstances. Thus, a modern market economy, as a rule, does not need systematic, brutal violence, which is its advantage. However, restriction of market freedom for the sake of strengthening the economic situation is still practiced in our time. For example, government regulation of a market economy often acts as a tool to accelerate its development.

The economic freedom of the individual is inseparable from its social responsibility. Theorists and practitioners of economics initially paid attention to the inherent contradiction in the nature of economic activity. On the one hand, the desire for maximum profit and selfish protection of private interests, and on the other, the need to take into account the interests and values ​​of society, that is, to show social responsibility.

Question 6. Is a “voluntary marriage” of economics and ecology possible?

For many years, industrial activity was characterized by irrational use of raw materials and high levels of pollution environment. There was an opinion that business activity and environmental protection are incompatible. However, the strengthening of the global environmental movement and the development of the concept and principles of sustainable development have contributed to a change in the attitude of entrepreneurs towards the environment. Sustainable development is the development of society in a way that meets the needs of the present generation without harming future generations to meet their needs.

An important step in this direction was the creation of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development at the UN Conference on Environment and Development, which included representatives of many of the world's largest transnational companies. These companies and individual entrepreneurs, who have adopted the principles of sustainable development, effectively use more advanced production processes, strive to meet environmental requirements (preventing pollution, reducing production waste, etc.) and make the best use of market opportunities. Such companies and businessmen gain advantages over competitors who do not use new approaches to business. As world experience shows, the combination of entrepreneurial activities, economic growth and environmental safety is possible.

Question 7. What is the essence and significance of economically literate and morally valuable human behavior in the economy?

One of the most important social roles of an individual is the role of a producer. In the context of the transition to an information-computer, technological method of production, the worker is required not only high level educational and vocational training, but also high morality, a high level of general culture. Modern work is increasingly filled with creative content, which requires not so much discipline supported from the outside (boss, foreman, product inspector), but rather self-discipline and self-control. The main controller in this case is conscience, personal responsibility and other moral qualities.

Depending on how property is acquired (legally and morally permissible methods or criminal) and how it is used, the social significance of the owner can manifest itself either with a “plus” sign or with a “minus” sign. You probably know examples of such manifestations.

In the process of a person realizing himself as a consumer, either healthy needs (sports, tourism, cultural leisure) or unhealthy ones (the need for alcohol, drugs) are also formed.

The nature and effectiveness of economic activity, in turn, depends on the level of development of the basic elements of economic culture.

Question 8. What difficulties is the new economy in Russia experiencing?

Firstly: an almost huge part of the Russian economy depends on prices for energy resources and minerals on world markets; as a result, if their prices decrease, the Russian economy will lose quite a significant amount of money.

Secondly: there is a significant stratification of society. The formation of the “middle class” is happening at an extremely slow pace, despite the fact that many people have good incomes, many of them are not confident in the future.

Third: corruption continues in Russia

Fourth: is the development of small businesses.

TASKS

Question 1. Economist F. Hayek wrote: “In a competitive society, the poor have much more limited opportunities than the rich, and yet a poor person in such a society is much freer than a person with a much better financial situation in a different type of society.” Do you agree with this statement?

A person with low material income is much more mobile. Nothing holds him back. He can give up everything and leave at any moment (since he has nothing to give up). A rich person is chained to his source of wealth, he is vulnerable to external changes. A rich person needs to work much harder to maintain and increase his wealth. Stopping capital growth will lead to poverty.

Question 2. These are lines from a letter from your peer to the editor of a newspaper: “Only intelligence, only sober calculation - that’s what you need in life. Rely only on yourself, then you will achieve everything. And trust less in so-called feelings, which also do not exist. Rationalism, dynamism - these are the ideals of our era.” What can you agree on or argue about with the author of the letter?

We can agree with the author of the letter, but I would highlight the contradictions in the letter. Many problems are not easy to solve with reason (rationalism). Problems sometimes need to be solved physically. And life requires more than just intelligence. Still, there must be a spark of romanticism in life for a person to achieve success with his soul. Dynamism in the character of today's man must undoubtedly be present, because this is the main feature of a person's desire to win. Relying only on oneself always invigorates a person.

Question 3. “Freedom can be preserved only where it is conscious and where responsibility for it is felt,” says the German philosopher of the 20th century. K. Jaspers. Can you agree with the scientist? Give examples to support his idea. Name the three main values ​​of a free person, in your opinion.

Freedom is associated with the presence of human free will. Free will imposes responsibility on a person and assigns merit to his words and actions. Freedom generates responsibility, first of all, for oneself, for one’s actions, thoughts and deeds. Responsibility gives a person freedom: a simple example - when a person is held accountable for his activities, then the Criminal Code is not scary for him. If everyone thinks that freedom is only the absence of restrictions, then there will be chaos in the world.

The values ​​of a free person: development, freedom of action, freedom of thought.

Question 4. International experts place Russia in 149th place in the world in terms of investment reliability. Thus, according to domestic experts, more than 80% of Russian businessmen believe that it is better not to break the law. But in practice, more than 90% are faced with non-obligatory partners. At the same time, only 60% of them feel guilty. How do you feel about the existence of double morality among participants in economic relations - for yourself and for your partner? Is it possible to create a system in the country to protect and support economic behavior that is reliable, predictable and trustworthy? What would you suggest doing about this?

Often, Russian businessmen's negative economic qualities (wastefulness, mismanagement, greed, fraud) outweigh the positive ones. A system of protection and support for economic behavior may be possible, but first of all, it is necessary to instill moral principles in future entrepreneurs so that immediate gain is not a priority. It is necessary to raise the level of ethics and economic culture of the individual. The state must provide economic freedom, but with real legal regulation. Participants in economic activities must consciously fulfill the moral and legal requirements of society and bear responsibility for their activities. What can you offer? Form the correct moral and ethical standards from childhood; for enterprises implementing environmental safety programs, paying attention to the development of their employees, their safety and improving labor protection, introducing new technologies, there should be some kind of incentives in the form of state support and tax benefits. It is also necessary to pay serious attention to economic crimes (so that there is a real punishment for misdeeds), and the inability to evade responsibility.

REVIEW QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 1

Question 1. How are the economy and other spheres of public life interconnected?

The economic sphere is a set of relationships between people that arise during the creation and movement of material wealth.

The economic sphere is the area of ​​production, exchange, distribution, consumption of goods and services. In order to produce something, people, tools, machines, materials, etc. are needed. - productive forces. In the process of production, and then exchange, distribution, consumption, people enter into various relationships with each other and with the product - production relations. Production relations and productive forces together constitute the economic sphere of society: productive forces - people (labor), tools, objects of labor; production relations – production, distribution, consumption, exchange.

Spheres of public life are closely interconnected. In the history of social sciences, there have been attempts to single out any sphere of life as determining in relation to others.

Within the framework of real social phenomena, elements from all spheres are combined. For example, the nature of economic relations can influence the structure social structure. A place in the social hierarchy shapes certain political views and provides appropriate access to education and other spiritual values. Economic relations themselves are determined by the legal system of the country, which is very often formed on the basis of the spiritual culture of the people, their traditions in the field of religion and morality. Thus, at various stages historical development the influence of any sphere may increase.

Question 2. What does economics study?

Economic science is the science of economy, management, relationships between people, as well as people and the environment, arising in the process of production, distribution, exchange, consumption of products, goods, services. Combines the features of exact and descriptive sciences.

Economics is a social science. It studies a certain aspect of social life and as such is closely related to other social sciences: history, sociology, political science, psychology, jurisprudence, etc. In particular, the connection between economics and jurisprudence is due to the fact that in the economic life of society, economic and legal relations are closely intertwined. The economy cannot function normally without appropriate legal basis- a set of norms regulating the activities of business entities at both the micro and macro levels. At the same time, the very need for appropriate legal norms is generated by changes occurring in the economic life of society.

Question 3. What is the role of economic activity in the life of society?

Economic activity (economy) plays a huge role in the life of society. Firstly, it provides people with the material conditions of existence - food, clothing, housing and other consumer goods. Secondly, economic sphere life of society is a system-forming component of society, a decisive sphere of its life, determining the course of all processes occurring in society. It is studied by many sciences, among which the most important are economic theory and social philosophy. It should also be noted that this comparative new science, like ergonomics, it studies man and his production activities, with the goal of optimizing tools, conditions and the work process.

Question 4. How can producers and consumers make rational economic choices?

So that the consumer can do right choice, he must check and compare all possible offers on the market. Compare price and quality.

In order for a manufacturer to make the right choice, he must check the market demand for a specific product in the place where he plans to sell it. Also check the solvency of the population in this region.

Question 5. Why is economic growth one of the criteria for progress and economic development?

Economic growth is an increase in the volume of production in national economy for a certain period of time (usually a year).

Economic growth refers to the development of the national economy in which the real volume of production (GDP) increases. The measure of economic growth is the growth rate of real GDP as a whole or per capita.

Economic growth is called extensive if it does not change the average labor productivity in society. When GDP growth outpaces growth in the number of people employed in manufacturing, strong growth occurs. Intensive economic growth is the basis for increasing the well-being of the population and a condition for reducing differentiation in the incomes of various social strata.

Question 6. What are the features of market regulation of the economy?

With this method of trade, entrepreneurs must compete, which has a positive effect on the price of the product, sooner or later it decreases. Just like in a real market or bazaar.

If there is an oversupply of some product on the market, then they simply will not buy it and will not produce it. Everything is regulated this way.

In addition, in a developed country there are systems that do not allow entrepreneurs to collude and keep high prices. So, ultimately, market relations benefit buyers.

Question 7. How to make production efficient?

An economically efficient production method is considered to be one in which a firm cannot increase output without increasing resource costs and at the same time cannot provide the same volume of output using fewer resources of one type and without increasing costs for other resources.

Production efficiency consists of the efficiency of all operating enterprises. Enterprise efficiency is characterized by the production of a product or service at the lowest cost. It is expressed in its ability to produce the maximum volume of products of acceptable quality with minimal costs and sell these products at the lowest costs. The economic efficiency of an enterprise, in contrast to its technical efficiency, depends on the extent to which its products meet market requirements and consumer demands.

Question 8. What is necessary for success in business?

In modern society, a successful business requires start-up capital.

You need to set a goal, make a plan and start implementing it. To succeed in business, you must have certain personal qualities: the ability to communicate with people, connections (the support of influential people is necessary), intelligence and luck. To achieve certain results, you need to be consistent and constant in your actions, have patience and fortitude. Constantly grow and improve.

Question 9. What laws regulate business activities?

Regulatory legal acts regulating business activities at the federal level:

Federal regulations: Constitution Russian Federation.

Codes: Budget Code of the Russian Federation; Tax Code of the Russian Federation; Civil Code Russian Federation.

Federal Law of July 24, 2007 No. 209-FZ “On the development of small and medium-sized businesses in the Russian Federation”;

Federal Law of February 25, 1999 No. 39-FZ “On investment activities in the Russian Federation, carried out in the form of capital investments”;

Federal Law of the Russian Federation dated August 8, 2001 No. 128-FZ “On licensing individual species activities";

Federal Law of December 26, 2008 No. 294-FZ “On the protection of the rights of legal entities and individual entrepreneurs in the implementation of state control(supervision) and municipal control";

Federal Law of December 30, 2007 No. 271-FZ “On retail markets and on amendments to Labor Code Russian Federation";

Federal Law of May 2, 2006 No. 59-FZ “On the procedure for considering appeals from citizens of the Russian Federation”;

Federal Law of August 8, 2001 No. 129-FZ “On state registration of legal entities and individual entrepreneurs”;

Federal Law of February 8, 1998 No. 14-FZ “On Limited Liability Companies”.

Question 10. How does the modern state participate in solving the economic problems of society?

State regulation of the economy is a set of measures and actions used by the state to make corrections and establish basic economic processes.

State regulation of the economy in a market economy is a system of standard measures of a legislative, executive and control nature carried out by authorized government agencies and public organizations in order to stabilize and adapt the existing socio-economic system to changing conditions.

The main goals of state regulation of the economy include:

Minimizing the inevitable negative consequences market processes;

Creation of financial, legal and social prerequisites for the effective functioning of a market economy;

Ensuring social protection for those groups of a market society whose position in a specific economic situation becomes the most vulnerable.

Question 11. Who regulates cash flows in the economy and how?

In a capitalist economy, capital flows from industries with a lower rate of profit to industries with a higher rate of profit through the financial instruments of stocks, bonds and equity participation in business, as well as through direct real investment.

The state indirectly regulates these flows through changes in the refinancing rate, government orders, etc.

Question 12. Why does the economy need a labor market?

The labor market is an economic environment in which, as a result of competition between economic agents through the mechanism of supply and demand, a certain volume of employment and wage level are established.

The functions of the labor market are determined by the role of labor in the life of society. From an economic point of view, labor is the most important production resource. In accordance with this, there are two main functions of the labor market:

Social function is to ensure a normal level of income and well-being of people, a normal level of reproduction of the productive abilities of workers.

The economic function of the labor market is the rational involvement, distribution, regulation and use of labor.

The demand for labor is determined by the needs of employers to hire a certain number of workers with the necessary qualifications to produce goods and services.

The demand for labor is inversely related to the real rate wages, which is defined as the ratio of nominal wages to the price level. In a competitive labor market, the labor demand curve has a negative slope: with increasing general level wage demand for labor falls.

Labor supply is determined by the size of the population, the share of the working-age population in it, the average number of hours worked by a worker per year, the quality of labor and the qualifications of workers.

The supply of labor depends on the wage. The labor supply curve has a positive slope: as the general wage level rises, the supply of labor increases.

Question 13: Why are countries forced to trade with each other?

International trade is the exchange of goods and services between state-national economies. World trade is the totality of foreign trade of all countries in the world.

Countries are forced to trade with each other because they are forced to exchange missing resources and products with each other.

MT determines what is more profitable for the state to produce and under what conditions to exchange the produced product. Thus, it contributes to the expansion and deepening of MRI, and therefore MT, involving more and more states in them. These relations are objective and universal, that is, they exist independently of the will of one (group) person and are suitable for any state. They are able to systematize the world economy, arranging states depending on the development of foreign trade (FT), on the share that it (FT) occupies in international trade, on the size of the average per capita foreign trade turnover.

Question 14. How does the economic culture of an individual manifest itself?

Economic culture is a system of values ​​and motivations for economic activity, respect for any form of ownership and commercial success as a great social achievement, success, rejection of “equalizing” sentiments, creation and development of a social environment for entrepreneurship, etc.

The basis of an individual’s economic culture is consciousness, and economic knowledge is its important component. This knowledge represents a set of economic ideas about the production, exchange, distribution and consumption of material goods, the influence of economic life on the development of society, the ways and forms, methods that contribute to the sustainable development of society. Modern production and economic relations require a large and constantly increasing amount of knowledge from the employee. Economic knowledge forms an idea of ​​economic relationships in the surrounding world, the patterns of development of the economic life of society. On their basis, economic thinking and practical skills of economically literate, morally sound behavior, significant in modern conditions economic qualities of the individual.

Question 15. How are economic freedom and social responsibility of economic participants interconnected?

Economic freedom is an opportunity for business entities to choose forms of ownership and areas of application of their abilities, knowledge, capabilities, profession, methods of income distribution, and consumption of material goods.

Social responsibility is the conscious attitude of the subject of social activity to the requirements of social necessity, civic duty, social tasks, norms and values, understanding the consequences of the activities carried out for certain social groups.

Social sphere. Work with text

I .

21. Give any two functions of social norms named by the author.

Social norms are generally accepted or fairly widespread patterns, rules of behavior of people, means of regulating their interaction. They protect public life from chaos and gravity, and direct its flow in the right direction. Social norms include moral, legal, political, aesthetic, religious, family, corporate, customary norms, etc. Law developed much later than other normative systems and is mainly based on them. It began to regulate economic and other relations more strictly and purposefully. Historically, law arises as if to compensate for the “inadequacy” of morality, which is revealed with the emergence of private property and political power. Subsequently, the norms of law and morality became closely intertwined, interacting with other means of social regulation.<...>Therefore, it is very important to identify the close relationship between law and morality.<.. .>

Lawyers, by the nature of their work, study, interpret, and apply, first of all, legal norms - this is their specialty. But to assess the behavior of subjects of legal relations and correctly resolve emerging conflicts, they constantly turn to ethical criteria, because morality is the basis of law. Russian jurists have invariably emphasized that law is legally formalized morality. Law is a means of realizing the moral and humanistic ideals of society. Law is unthinkable without lessons in morality, morality, and ethics.

B.C. Solovyov, for example, defined law as “a compulsory requirement for the implementation of minimal good and order, which does not allow a certain manifestation of evil.”<...>Law and morality differ in the way they are established. Legal norms are created by the state, and only by the state (or with its consent by certain public organizations) are abolished, supplemented, or changed. In this sense, the state is the political creator of law. Therefore, law expresses not just the will of the people, but their state will and acts not just as a regulator, but as a special, state regulator.

( N. I. Matuzov )

22. Name any five types of social norms listed by the author, and give one example of any two of these norms.

23. Based on the text and knowledge of the social science course, name three differences between legal norms and moral norms.

24. Based on your knowledge of the social science course, name three problems that can only be resolved with the help of law.

II .

21. What does the author call a social role? How did the author explain the connection between a person’s social status and social roles?

A role is a pattern or type of behavior expected in a social group from people occupying different positions. We can also say that a role is a set of expectations, rights and obligations aimed at a person as the holder of a certain social position.

Every person has a wide network social relations. Some of them are temporary, some are long-term and important. In the network of social relations, everyone has a certain social position towards which expectations are directed and which has established rights and obligations. The holder of the position is forced to behave in accordance with these expectations, rights and obligations, to fulfill the role required by them.

The role is quite stable: a person changes, but his social role remains. They learn to “perform” a social role in the process of socialization, focusing on the expectations set by society. A role can be understood as a “response” to a set of expectations directed at a person in society. This “answer” is determined by his position, profession, position, gender and other factors.

The role sets behavioral limits for its performer. If the behavior characteristic of a given role does not go beyond these limits, then it satisfies both the individual and his environment, that is, it meets the required norms. Different roles still have different limits of permissibility, and each role has specific situations of this “permissibility”. The range of this role freedom can be greater or less, the strictness of adherence to “role” rules is weaker or stronger... the so-called role dichotomy. For example, an actor or a representative of another creative profession is allowed many things that a priest is not allowed...

Fulfilling the role requires a certain creative approach. The interpretation and implementation of the role is largely determined by the personality of the individual. Sometimes important roles transform the personality, which is essentially the integration of all the roles acquired by the individual...

Each individual performs many different roles. As soon as you leave the house (or rather, the house), a person finds himself in a cycle of social roles. For example, during the day: buyer, pedestrian, driver, father, director - one and the same person...

From a sociological point of view, the distribution of labor and activities in society has a role basis. The presence of social roles in society and their parameters is also a way of monitoring the activities and behavior of members of society.

( E. Asp )

22. What did the author call the range of role freedom? Show the range of role freedom using the example of the student role.

23. The author believes that the presence of social roles in society is a way social control. Using the text and social science knowledge, explain the author's opinion. Concretize it using examples of the roles of the buyer and the pedestrian.

24. What two aspects of the connection between the social role and the individual’s personality did the author indicate? Using the text and social studies knowledge, explain each aspect.

III .

21. What does the author call social status? What three types of social statuses did he identify?

Each person occupies several positions in society. For example, a woman can be a musician, a teacher, a wife and a mother. Each of these social positions, associated with certain rights and responsibilities, is called status. Although a person may have a number of statuses, one of them, which can be called the main status, determines his social position...

Some statuses are given from birth... Such statuses are called assigned (prescribed).

On the contrary, the achieved (acquired) status is determined by what a person has accomplished in his life. The status of a writer is acquired as a result of the publication of a book; status of husband - after obtaining permission to marry and entering into marriage. No one is born an author or a husband. Some statuses combine prescribed and achieved elements. Earning a PhD is undoubtedly an achievement. But once acquired, the new status remains forever, becoming a permanent part of a person’s personality and social role, defining all his intentions and goals as a prescribed status.

A role is the expected behavior determined by a person's status...

Each status usually includes a number of roles. A person who has the status of a teacher behaves differently with students, other faculty members, representatives of the Ministry of Education, or the rector. The set of roles corresponding to a given status is called a role set.

How do we learn roles? Assimilation of different roles is a significant part of the socialization process. Our roles are defined by what others expect of us. In our society (and most others), it is expected that parents should take care of their children, that an employee should do the work assigned to him, that close friends care about our problems. If they don't "perform" their roles according to our expectations, we are surprised, angry or hurt, and our relationship changes.

A distinction can be made between formal and informal role expectations. The most striking example of the former are laws. When we sign a contract to purchase a house, we are expected to buy it; If we fail to do this, we may be sued for breach of contract. Marriage is another type of contract that can be dissolved through divorce. Criminal laws prohibit murder, rape, and other acts that harm others. Other expectations may be less formal—such as table manners, dress code, and politeness—but they also have a big impact on our behavior.

The reactions that can be caused by our actions that do not conform to role expectations can also be classified as formal and informal... When a person's actions correspond to role expectations, he receives social rewards such as money and respect. Taken together, these rewards and punishments are called sanctions. Whether applied by one or more interacting individuals or by others, sanctions reinforce rules that determine what behavior is appropriate in a given situation. (N. Smelser )

22. How, according to the author, are social status and social roles related? How do social roles learn? What is the place of social control in this process?

23. Using the role of a school student as an example, illustrate two role expectations (formal and informal) and two sanctions (formal and informal).

24. Suggest what determines a person’s choice of his main status. Using the text and facts from social life, make two assumptions and briefly explain each.

IV .

21. Name the primary incentives for social mobility considered by the author. Why, in his opinion, is such a factor as changes in the relative “volume” of layers also important?

Social mobility exists in a society divided into classes and strata. People are grouped based on social differences or, to put it bluntly, inequality. But this same process also presupposes the possibility of moving people across these dividing borders...

Social inequality, different attitudes towards the possession of economic resources, different degrees of social prestige and political power are the primary incentives or, accordingly, obstacles (if they are negatively characterized) for the movement of a person from one layer to another. Also important is a situation-dependent factor such as changes in the relative “volume” of layers.

The changes in mobility that occur must be somehow connected with changes in the ratio of layers. On modern stage the lowest layer decreases as the level of education increases all the time.

The role of the family in a class-based, stratified society is interesting and significant. The family was generally considered to be the social unit through which the individual found his place in the class structure. If a child masters the profession of his parents, he remains in the social class to which he belongs together with his parents, and the hereditary profession of the family, on the one hand freeing him from many problems, on the other hand, begins to limit his mobility in the class structure. In all societies, mobility was limited, so to speak, by “social inheritance.” In a traditional agrarian society, it was traditions and inheritance that played a central role... If a family cannot pass on property to the next generation, it tries to maximize the social opportunities of its children. In this case, a necessary prerequisite for moving up the social ladder, i.e. social mobility is education. Especially middle-class families are looking for the most promising and pragmatic professions for their children and the education corresponding to these professions, trying to instill in them the idea of ​​​​a successful person who has achieved everything through his own work, and in various other ways increasing the social mobility and resilience of their children. Such a demographic factor as a decrease in the number of children in a family also increases the social opportunities of existing children.

People of high social status, even if they do not set a special goal to increase the social mobility of children, involuntarily contribute to this through their lifestyle, the level of culture in which children are raised, as well as through their positional and value models. People deprived of this privilege in childhood must later in life acquire cultural values ​​that characterize the way of life to which they aspire.

Modern industrial societies are “open”, there is a lot of mobility in them, and the status of an individual depends more on his own abilities and achievements than on his contacts and patronage. (E. Asp )

22. How does the author characterize the role of the family in the processes of social mobility? (Using the text, give two characteristics of the role of families with different financial resources.)

23. Using facts of public life and personal social experience, illustrate with three examples the author’s idea about the openness of modern society.

24. There is an opinion in society that the high social status of parents does not contribute to the achievement of an even higher social status by children. Using the text, social science knowledge and facts of social life, give two arguments to support and two arguments to refute this opinion.

V.

21. How does the author characterize vertical social mobility? What factor is, in the author’s opinion, determining for advancement up the social ladder through professional organizations?

Because vertical mobility is present to varying degrees in every society, and because between the strata there must be some kind of “membranes”, “openings”, “stairs”, “elevators” or “paths” along which individuals are allowed to move up or down from one stratum in another, then it would be legitimate for us to consider the question of what these channels of social circulation actually are. The functions of social circulation are performed by various institutions... The most important of these social institutions are... professional organizations...

Some of these organizations also play a large role in the vertical movement of individuals. These are scientific, literary, creative institutions and organizations. Since entry into these organizations was relatively free for everyone who showed appropriate abilities, regardless of their social status, advancement within such institutions was accompanied by general advancement up the social ladder. Many scientists, lawyers, writers, artists, musicians, architects, sculptors, doctors, actors, singers and other creators simple origin rose socially thanks to this channel. The same can be said about representatives of the middle strata who have reached even higher social positions.

Among the 829 British geniuses studied by H. Ellis, 71 were the sons of unskilled workers who rose to high positions solely through this channel... In the United States, out of 1,000 writers, at least 187 achieved fame through this channel. 4% of the most famous Russian scientists (academics) who have achieved high social status, came from a peasant background.

Printing should be mentioned here, especially newspapers, as a specific type professional institutes, as an important vertical circulation channel. Currently, the role of the press in this regard has increased significantly. It can provide, at least for a while, an excellent career for any mediocrity, or destroy the career of a person of extraordinary ability. Directly or indirectly, it plays a huge role as a “social elevator”. “Fame” is something without which rapid advancement is now extremely difficult. It often brings fame out of nowhere, it opens or destroys talent, it can “transform” average abilities into genius ones, and it can also strangle a true genius. Therefore those social groups, which control the press, play a large role in social circulation, for it represents one of the noisiest, most efficient and fastest elevators of circulation.

( P. A. Sorokin )

22. Why does the author view the press as an important channel for social mobility? Guess why the author calls the press “one of the noisiest, most efficient and fastest circulation elevators.”

23. Name any three channels of social mobility not mentioned in the text and illustrate in relation to modern society the possibility of moving an individual through each of them (first indicate the channel, then give a corresponding example).

24. Societies differ in the nature and types of social mobility. Using social science knowledge, identify two possible social factors and one personal factor that impede the growth of social mobility.

Does the environment shape a person’s personality or does a person choose his social circle based on the character traits inherent in him initially?

There are 2 obvious points of view here:

  • talents and character are inherent in a person from birth; when choosing people, he seeks to fill missing skills or find support;
  • the consciousness and actions of people directly depend on their environment; under its influence a person’s personality, his preferences and character traits can change.

Some people believe that a person cannot change in better side, if the people around him do not support him, but, on the contrary, condemn and ridicule him. Let's try to analyze different situations and find out how much friends, relatives, colleagues and even neighbors influence our consciousness and behavior. In other words, let’s consider how strong the influence of the environment is on a person’s personality.

“Trying to get up from my knees”

So, imagine a person, it could be a woman or a man, who counts every penny, denies himself expensive purchases and constantly borrows money from neighbors. But, the day comes when such a person decides to radically change his level and lifestyle, forgetting about old habits forever. He gets carried away with his inner world, begins to read the literature in which he is looking. Learns to look at the world positively, looking for only positive aspects in all events. In general, he decides to build his life not according to the usual canons, but according to his own internal preferences.

Now imagine that such a person is forced to meet every evening with people who undermine his determination. They are ready to ridicule his views, his desire to change and start living at a qualitatively new level. Acquired confidence, which has not yet been supported by real achievements, will unfortunately give way to doubts, fears and concerns. And the person will most likely quickly return to his previous image and lifestyle, dropping to his knees. It turns out that the influence of the environment on personality is obvious.

Who can really influence a person’s consciousness? These could be his closest friends, parents, colleagues, relatives, neighbors, even random passers-by. Our environment is large enough, and each person influences intentions and actions. How can one person afford not to pay attention to goals and ignore assessments from the environment? Even if people realize that the opinions and views of the environment are wild and cruel, and the influence of the environment on the individual is destructive, they often agree with them over time.

Analyze your environment: 8 questions to ask yourself

The environment has a huge influence on the development, thoughts and beliefs of each of us. But people have the right to harmonious development and their own personal growth. If you are not satisfied with your life, try a little experiment. Answer the questions below to assess the impact of your environment on your life:

  • 1. What kind of people surround you every day?
  • 2. What lengths are others willing to go to make you a little better and happier?
  • 3. How useful is communication with them and does it bring you pleasure?

Once you have found the answers to all the questions, try to estimate the amount of time spent with each friend, family member, colleague. Does such communication have a positive impact on the development of your personality? If you cannot answer and clearly assess the influence of your environment on you, then try to think about the following questions:

  • 4. What did your loved ones advise you to watch, read or listen to?
  • 5. What places did they recommend visiting?
  • 6. What thoughts does communication with them lead to?
  • 7. What emotions and feelings do they evoke?

And one more security question.

  • 8. Do the people around you help you develop and grow in the direction you choose?

The answers to these questions allow you to conduct a small analysis of your own life and, from a different perspective, look at the influence of your immediate environment. If you stand still and no one can help you, much less support you, then the answer is obvious. Think about expanding or even changing your social circle, since the influence of your immediate environment is currently destroying your personality.

Change your environment: drastic actions

People who cause fear, apathy or irritation in their friends or loved ones are called “toxic”. Perhaps you have noticed how, after a harmless conversation with such a person, your head begins to hurt and your mood deteriorates? If yes, then feel free to break off all possible contacts with him. It's better to spend it alone free time rather than waste it on negative, destructive conversations. By communicating with such friends, you are stealing time from yourself. In this case, it is better to immediately say “no” to such friends or colleagues than to communicate with them, trying to always remain polite and attentive persons, spending your energy and resources on them. Don't underestimate the influence of your social environment on your development.

Unfortunately, after the analysis, it may turn out that more than half of all your relatives, acquaintances, colleagues or friends are “toxic” people. So, it's time to expand your social circle by paying more attention to those people who inspire or motivate you. Try to meet new people whose goals, aspirations and desires will coincide with yours. They can help you get started new life, full of pleasant events and long-awaited victories. The influence of your social environment on your life is too great for you to choose your social circle rashly.

In conclusion, it is worth noting that you should not associate true friends with people who have a lot of money or with whom you spend time on the weekends. Pay attention to the person’s goals and life position. Among the people there are many interesting, purposeful individuals who can support you in difficult situation. And among even “status” acquaintances, there may not be a single person who will not turn away from you when a problem arises.

Throughout life, a person has to make choices. What university to go to, what car to drive, or what to buy for dinner. The ability to choose is a manifestation of free will and the ability to build our lives the way we want. However, the choice is always fraught with difficulties. If only because you will have to give up one in favor of the other.

Marketers and salespeople have been trying to understand the psychology of decision making for decades. And they managed to draw certain conclusions. Today, these developments can help Internet entrepreneurs increase conversion and turn potential clients into real buyers.

What is choice?

Let's start with the basics. The American company Merriam-Webster, a publisher of reference books and dictionaries, defines decision making as the ability to choose between two or more positions.

The so-called “choice theory” of William Glasser is based on the fact that a person makes choices in order to satisfy his five basic needs: security, love, self-realization, freedom and entertainment.

Sheena Iyengar, a Columbia Business University professor who studies the psychology of choice, offers a third definition: “Choice is a person's preference. There are people who notice even the slightest differences between seemingly identical things. The essence of the phenomenon lies precisely in choosing one product from two seemingly identical ones.”

About preferences

There is another term - human preferences. According to Merriam-Webster theory: “It is a tendency associated with temperament or outlook, sometimes an unconscious decision.”

Preferences are embedded in our minds. They are formed throughout life, and often a person cannot even explain why he likes a certain thing.

For example, someone would rather have a dog than a cat. Because of which? The reason is that dogs are more friendly, attractive and kind. Most people will be able to answer this question. On the other hand, many will not find an explanation for why they prefer red to blue. They like it - that's all. This is the difference between conscious and unconscious preferences.

Associations and their influence on behavior

In psychology, association is defined as “an often unconscious reaction in response to a stimulus.” An experiment was conducted, the results of which determined the influence of associations on human behavior.

Two groups of people took part in the study. One was asked to read the phrase “yellow banana,” the other, “yellow sky.” In the first case, there were no hesitations, but in the second, most people hesitated before pronouncing “sky” and were surprised by just such a connection between the words. This experiment demonstrates that associations most often arise at an unconscious level.

Associations and choice

Associations have a great influence on the choices a person makes. And this is proven by another experiment conducted in 2001 by Frederic Brochet. The scientist asked respondents to rate wine from two different bottles. He mentioned that one of the provided copies was more expensive than the second. In fact, the same drink was poured into two bottles. Most people, having tried both types, said that the expensive one was tastier and “more interesting,” while the cheap one was inferior in many respects, and gave preference to the first one.

The results of the experiment demonstrate the connection between associations and choice. Expensive means high quality, the best. And that is why this particular product is more popular. The problem with such unconscious associations is that they exclude an understanding of the real quality of the product.

Preferences and choice

As mentioned above, preferences can be conscious or unconscious. The second in psychology refers to behavioral tendencies that influence a person’s choice. Let us list four factors that determine unconscious decision making.

1. The choice depends on the “first impression”

Often a person makes a choice based on the primary information received about the product. For example, when you pay $10 for shampoo and see it on sale for $8, it’s clear which option will seem more profitable to you. At the same time, if you previously bought the same shampoo for $12, and saw the price of $10, then you will happily pay this amount.

2. The choice depends on the context

The context in which the situation is presented also influences decision making. The following study demonstrates this. Four witnesses to the accident were asked to say how fast the cars were traveling when the impact occurred. For each of them, the situation was described in the same way, only the characteristics of the incident were changed: “touched,” “hit,” “collided,” and “crashed.” Witnesses gave the speeds as 31, 34, 38 and 41 mph respectively.

3. The choice depends on the environment

Many call this “herd mentality” - when new person in the group chooses the same thing as most other members of the community. He does this because he is afraid to stand out and incur condemnation.

4. The choice depends on the “fear of loss”

“Fear of loss” is a well-known theory in psychology, and it also applies to how a person makes choices. If he is afraid of losing or missing out on something, then he will probably choose it - simply because later it will not be there.

Why is it always difficult to choose?

“Three months ago, I packed up and moved to another city because I signed a contract to work with a company whose existence I only recently learned about” or “Yesterday I bought two types of cheese, both of which I have never tried.”

Obviously, making a mistake in choosing cheese is much less painful than choosing a bad job. In addition, you can simply not eat the cheese, or return it to the store, that is, change your decision. And yet, the person who wrote this said that choosing to move to another city was much easier for him than choosing cheese.

On average, a supermarket stocks more than 30,000 different products. Even without conducting experiments, we can say that it is difficult to make a choice when there are so many products in front of your eyes.

Sheena Iyengar conducted an experiment in a store in Palo Alto, where 348 types of jam were presented. She took the stand with 6 varieties outside the store and saw that passersby paid little attention to the products presented. When jars with other varieties were added to the stand, more people wanted to try the jams, but buyers took a long time to make a choice.

This is the paradox: if you offer less, they won’t pay attention; if you offer more, consumers are tormented with their choice. We need to look for the “golden mean”.

Choice takes energy

“I try to reduce my choices in small things. I don't want to think about what to order for lunch or what to wear. Because there are too many other issues on which decisions need to be made,” as Barack Obama, US President, once said.

And he is not the only one who follows this logic. The creator of the social network Facebook, Mark Zuckerberg, and the “father” of Apple, Steve Jobs, wore almost the same thing every day. And not because they don't understand fashion. Choice requires tension and provokes fatigue.

How to make the decision-making process easier?

There are some decisions that will never be easy. But fortunately for marketers and salespeople, this is not the case for them. There are specific and very real ways in which you can make the buying process more enjoyable and easier. These methods are drawn from the book “How to Make Choices Easier” by Sheena Iyengar, already known to us.

1. Reduce your assortment

When faced with an abundance problem, people are less likely to choose something. We wrote about this above. The trick is to find the balance between too much variety and just enough product. It's difficult, but if the company manages to do it, success is guaranteed. When manufacturer Proctor & Gamble reduced the Head & Shoulders line from 26 to 15 products, sales increased by 10%.

2. More specifics

“In order for people to quickly make a choice, they must clearly understand the possible benefits of purchasing a particular product,” says Sheena Iyengar.

3. Classify products

Think of a supermarket where there are over 30,000 products in stock. Now imagine that milk will be on the shelf next to shampoos, and soap next to meat. This is chaos. That’s why smart merchandisers work, and when we go to a supermarket, we don’t feel lost in such abundance.

4. Start simple

If you were offered the opportunity to outfit your own car, where would you start? The German car manufacturer has given customers the opportunity to create their own car model. It turned out that when initially given fewer positions to choose from, decisions were made slowly. After choosing from 56 different colors for the car, consumers became more active.

The choice may be difficult, but the human brain is truly capable of a lot, since it is known that it would take 82,944 processors to simulate 1 second of the thought process.

Starting simple and gradually making the choice more complex makes the decision easier than if you present many alternatives at once.

Suggest what determines a person’s choice of his main status. Using the text and facts from social life, make two assumptions and briefly explain each.


Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

Each person occupies several positions in society. For example, a woman can be a musician, a teacher, a wife and a mother. Each of these social positions, associated with certain rights and responsibilities, is called status. Although a person may have a number of statuses, one of them, which can be called the main status, determines his social position...

Some statuses are given from birth... Such statuses are called assigned (prescribed).

On the contrary, the achieved (acquired) status is determined by what a person has accomplished in his life. The status of a writer is acquired as a result of the publication of a book; status of husband - after obtaining permission to marry and entering into marriage. No one is born an author or a husband. Some statuses combine prescribed and achieved elements. Earning a PhD is undoubtedly an achievement. But once acquired, the new status remains forever, becoming a permanent part of a person’s personality and social role, defining all his intentions and goals as a prescribed status.

A role is the expected behavior determined by a person's status...

Each status usually includes a number of roles. A person who has the status of a teacher behaves differently with students, other faculty members, representatives of the Ministry of Education, or the rector. The set of roles corresponding to a given status is called a role set.

How do we learn roles? Assimilation of different roles is a significant part of the socialization process. Our roles are defined by what others expect of us. In our society (and most others), it is expected that parents should take care of their children, that an employee should do the work assigned to him, that close friends care about our problems. If they don't "perform" their roles according to our expectations, we are surprised, angry or hurt, and our relationship changes.

A distinction can be made between formal and informal role expectations. The most striking example of the former are laws. When we sign a contract to purchase a house, we are expected to buy it; If we fail to do this, we may be sued for breach of contract. Marriage is another type of contract that can be dissolved through divorce. Criminal laws prohibit murder, rape, and other acts that harm others. Other expectations may be less formal—such as table manners, dress code, and politeness—but they also have a big impact on our behavior.

The reactions that can be caused by our actions that do not conform to role expectations can also be classified as formal and informal... When a person's actions correspond to role expectations, he receives social rewards such as money and respect. Taken together, these rewards and punishments are called sanctions. Whether applied by one or more interacting individuals or by others, sanctions reinforce rules that determine what behavior is appropriate in a given situation.

(N. Smelser)

Explanation.

The correct answer should make assumptions and provide explanations, for example:

1) the choice of main status may depend on life circumstances force majeure (for example, a woman became a mother, and this status became the main one for her, since she is vitally necessary for her child);

2) the choice of the main status can be determined life goals person (for example, a person strives to find a prestigious job and make a career, & therefore, first the status of a student, and then an employee of the organization is the main thing for him).

Other assumptions may be made, other explanations may be given.