Along with it is the cytoplasm that is one of the main parts of the cell, this building material of all organic matter. The cytoplasm plays a very important role in the life of the cell, it unites all cellular structures, promotes their interaction with each other. Also in the cytoplasm is the cell nucleus and that's it. If we talk in simple words, then the cytoplasm is a substance in which all other components of the cell are located.

The structure of the cytoplasm

The cytoplasm contains various chemical compounds that are not homogeneous chemical substance, but a complex physicochemical system, it is also constantly changing and developing and has a high water content. An important component of the cytoplasm is a protein mixture in a colloidal state in combination with nucleic acids, fats and carbohydrates.

Also, the cytoplasm is divided into two components:

  • endoplasm,
  • exoplasm.

The endoplasm is located in the center of the cell and has a more fluid structure. It is in it that all the most important organelles of the cell are located. Exoplasm is located along the perimeter of the cell, where it borders on its membrane, it is more viscous and dense in consistency. It plays a connecting role of the cell with the environment.

Drawing of the cytoplasm.

Cytoplasmic functions

What is the function of the cytoplasm? Very important - in the cytoplasm all processes of cellular metabolism take place, with the exception of the synthesis of nucleic acids (it is carried out in the cell nucleus). In addition to this most important function, the cytoplasm plays the following useful roles:

  • fills the cell cavity,
  • is a connecting link for cellular components,
  • determines the position of organelles,
  • is a conductor for physical and chemical processes at the intracellular and intercellular levels,
  • maintains the internal pressure of the cell, its volume, elasticity, etc.

Cytoplasmic movement

The ability of the cytoplasm to move is its important property, thanks to this, the connection of the cell organelles is ensured. In biology, the movement of the cytoplasm is called cyclosis, it is a constant process. The movement of the cytoplasm in the cell can be striated, oscillatory or circular.

Division of the cytoplasm

Another property of the cytoplasm is its division, without which cell division itself would simply be impossible. The division of the cytoplasm is carried out by

Cytoplasm - the contents of a cell outside the nucleus, enclosed in a plasma membrane. It has a transparent color and a gel-like consistency. The cytoplasm consists mainly of water, and also contains enzymes, salts, and various organic molecules.

Cytoplasmic function

The cytoplasm functions to support and suspend organelles and cellular molecules. Many cellular processes also take place in the cytoplasm.

Some of these processes involve protein synthesis, the first stage known as glycolysis, and. In addition, the cytoplasm helps move substances such as hormones around the cell and also dissolves cellular waste.

Cytoplasm components

Organelles

Organelles are tiny cellular structures that perform specific functions within the cell. Examples of organelles include:, and.

Also within the cytoplasm is a network of fibers that help the cell maintain its shape and provide support for the organelles.

Cytoplasmic inclusions

Cytoplasmic inclusions are particles temporarily suspended in the cytoplasm. Inclusions are composed of macromolecules and granules.

The three types of inclusions found in the cytoplasm are secretory and nutrient inclusions, as well as pigment granules. Examples of secretory inclusions are proteins, enzymes and acids. Glycogen (storage of glucose molecules) and lipids are examples of nutrient inclusions. Melanin present in skin cells is an example of the inclusion of pigment granules.

Cytoplasmic divisions

The cytoplasm can be divided into two main parts: endoplasm and ectoplasm. The endoplasm is the central region of the cytoplasm that contains organelles. Ectoplasm is a more gel-like peripheral part of the cell cytoplasm.

Cell membrane

The cell or plasma membrane is a structure that prevents the shedding of cytoplasm from the cell. This membrane is composed of phospholipids that form a lipid bilayer that separates the contents of the cell from the extracellular fluid. The lipid bilayer is semi-permeable, which means that only a few molecules are able to diffuse across the membrane to enter or exit the cell. Extracellular fluid, proteins, lipids and other molecules can be added to the cytoplasm of the cell using. In this process, molecules and extracellular fluid are internalized when the membrane forms a vesicle.

The vesicle separates fluid, molecules and kidneys from the cell membrane, forming an endosome. The endosome moves within the cell to deliver its contents to their respective destinations. Substances are removed from the cytoplasm by. In this process, vesicles budded from the Golgi bodies fuse with the cell membrane, displacing their contents from the cell. The plasma membrane also provides structural support for the cell, acting as a stable platform for cytoskeleton and attachment.

It is known that the majority of living things consist of water in free or bound form by 70 percent or more. Where does so much of it come from, where is it localized? It turns out that each cell in its composition has up to 80% water, and only the rest falls on the dry matter weight.

And the main "water" structure is just the cytoplasm of the cell. This is a complex, heterogeneous, dynamic internal environment, with the structural features and functions of which we will get to know later.

Protoplast

This term is customary to designate all the internal contents of any eukaryotic smallest structure, separated by the plasma membrane from its other "colleagues". That is, this includes the cytoplasm - the internal environment of the cell, the organelles located in it, the nucleus with the nucleoli and genetic material.

What organelles are located inside the cytoplasm? It:

  • ribosomes;
  • mitochondria;
  • golgi apparatus;
  • lysosomes;
  • vacuoles (in plants and fungi);
  • cell center;
  • plastids (in plants);
  • cilia and flagella;
  • microfilaments;
  • microtubules.

The nucleus, separated by the karyolemma, contains the nucleoli and also contains the cytoplasm of the cell. In the center it is in animals, closer to the wall - in plants.

Thus, the structural features of the cytoplasm will largely depend on the type of cell, on the organism itself, and its belonging to the kingdom of living beings. In general, it takes up all the free space inside and performs a number of important functions.

Matrix, or hyaloplasm

The structure of the cytoplasm of a cell consists primarily of its division into parts:

  • hyaloplasm - permanent liquid part;
  • organelles;
  • inclusions are structure variables.

The matrix, or hyaloplasm, is the main internal component, which can be in two states - ash and gel.

Cytosol is a cell cytoplasm that has a more liquid aggregate character. Cytogel is the same, but in a denser state, rich in large molecules of organic substances. General chemical composition and physical properties hyaloplasms are expressed as follows:

  • colorless, viscous colloidal substance, rather thick and slimy;
  • has a clear differentiation by structural organization, however, due to mobility, it can easily change it;
  • from the inside it is represented by the cytoskeleton or microtrabecular lattice, which is formed by protein filaments (microtubules and microfilaments);
  • all structural parts of the cell as a whole are located on the parts of this lattice, and due to microtubules, the Golgi apparatus and EPS, communication occurs between them through the hyaloplasm.

Thus, the hyaloplasm is an important part that provides many functions of the cytoplasm in the cell.

Cytoplasm composition

If we talk about the chemical composition, then the share of water in the cytoplasm is about 70%. This is an average value, because some plants have cells in which up to 90-95% water. The dry matter is represented by:


General chemical reaction environment - alkaline or slightly alkaline. If we consider how the cell cytoplasm is located, then this feature should be noted. A part is collected at the edge, in the area of \u200b\u200bthe plasmalemma, and is called ectoplasm. The other part is oriented closer to the karyolemma and is called endoplasm.

The structure of the cytoplasm of a cell is determined by special structures - microtubules and microfilaments, so we will consider them in more detail.

Microtubules

Hollow small elongated particles up to several micrometers in size. Diameter - from 6 to 25 nm. Due to too scanty indicators, a complete and comprehensive study of these structures is not yet possible, however, it is assumed that their walls consist of the protein substance tubulin. This compound has a chain spirally twisted molecule.

Some of the functions of the cytoplasm in the cell are performed precisely due to the presence of microtubules. So, for example, they are involved in the alignment of fungi and plants, some bacteria. In animal cells, they are much less. Also, it is these structures that carry out the movement of organelles in the cytoplasm.

By themselves, microtubules are unstable, capable of rapidly disintegrating and forming again, renewing themselves from time to time.

Microfilaments

Enough important elements cytoplasm. They are long filaments of actin (globular protein), which, intertwining with each other, form a common network - the cytoskeleton. Another name is the microtrabecular lattice. This is a kind of structural features of the cytoplasm. Indeed, it is thanks to this cytoskeleton that all organelles are held together, they can safely communicate with each other, substances and molecules pass through them, and metabolism is carried out.

However, it is known that the cytoplasm is the internal environment of a cell, which is often capable of changing its physical data: becoming more liquid or viscous, changing its structure (transition from sol to gel and back). In this regard, microfilaments are a dynamic, labile part, capable of rapidly rebuilding, modifying, decaying and forming again.

Plasma membranes

The presence of well-developed and normally functioning numerous membrane structures is of great importance for the cell, which also constitutes a kind of structural features of the cytoplasm. Indeed, it is through the plasma membrane barriers that the transport of molecules, nutrients and metabolic products, gases for respiration processes, and so on occurs. This is why most organelles have these structures.

They, like a network, are located in the cytoplasm and delimit the internal contents of their hosts from each other, from environment... Protect and guard against unwanted substances and bacteria that pose a threat.

The structure of most of them is similar - a liquid-mosaic model, which considers each plasmalemma as a biolayer of lipids permeated with different protein molecules.

Since the functions of the cytoplasm in the cell are primarily transport communication between all its parts, the presence of membranes in most organelles is one of the structural parts of the hyaloplasm. Comprehensively, all together, they perform common tasks to ensure the vital activity of the cell.

Ribosomes

Small (up to 20 nm) rounded structures, consisting of two halves - subunits. These halves can exist both together and separate for a while. The basis of the composition: and protein. The main places of localization of ribosomes in the cell:


The functions of these structures are in the synthesis and assembly of protein macromolecules, which are consumed for the vital activity of the cell.

and the Golgi apparatus

The numerous network of tubules, tubules and vesicles, forming a conducting system inside the cell and located throughout the cytoplasm, is called the endoplasmic reticulum, or reticulum. Its function corresponds to the structure - ensuring the interconnection of organelles with each other and transporting nutrient molecules to the organelles.

The Golgi complex, or apparatus, performs the function of accumulating the necessary substances (carbohydrates, fats, proteins) in the system of special cavities. They are limited from the cytoplasm by membranes. Also, it is this organoid that is the site of the synthesis of fats and carbohydrates.

Peroxisomes and lysosomes

Lysosomes are small, rounded structures that resemble bubbles filled with fluid. They are very numerous and distributed in the cytoplasm, where they move freely within the cell. Their main task is to dissolve foreign particles, that is, to eliminate "enemies" in the form of dead sections of cellular structures, bacteria and other molecules.

The liquid content is saturated with enzymes, so lysosomes take part in the breakdown of macromolecules to their monomeric units.

Peroxisomes are small oval or round organelles with a single membrane. Filled with liquid contents including a large number of various enzymes. They are one of the main consumers of oxygen. They perform their functions depending on the type of cell in which they are located. It is possible to synthesize myelin for the sheath of nerve fibers, and can also oxidize and neutralize toxic substances and various molecules.

Mitochondria

These structures are not in vain called the power (energy) stations of the cell. After all, it is in them that the formation of the main energy carriers occurs - the molecules of adenosine triphosphoric acid, or ATP. By appearance resemble a bean. The membrane limiting the mitochondria from the cytoplasm is double. Internal structure is highly folded to increase surface area aTP synthesis... The folds are called crista, they contain a large number of different enzymes to catalyze synthesis processes.

Most of all mitochondria have muscle cells in the organisms of animals and humans, since they require an increased content and expenditure of energy.

Cycosis phenomenon

The movement of the cytoplasm in the cell is called cyclosis. It consists of several types:

  • vibrational;
  • rotary, or circular;
  • streaky.

Any movement is necessary to ensure a number of important functions of the cytoplasm: full-fledged movement of organelles within the hyaloplasm, uniform exchange of nutrients, gases, energy, excretion of metabolites.

Cyclosis occurs in both plant and animal cells, without exception. If it stops, then the body dies. Therefore, this process is also an indicator of the vital activity of creatures.

Thus, we can conclude that the cytoplasm of any eukaryotic animal is a very dynamic, living structure.

The difference between the cytoplasm of animal and plant cells

In fact, there are few differences. The general plan of the building, the functions performed are completely similar. However, there are still some discrepancies. For example:


In other respects, both structures are identical in composition and structure of the cytoplasm. The number of certain elementary links may vary, but their presence is required. Therefore, the value of the cytoplasm in the cell of both plants and animals is equally great.

The role of the cytoplasm in the cell

The value of the cytoplasm in the cell is great, if not decisive. After all, this is the basis in which all vital structures are located, so it is difficult to overestimate its role. Several main points can be formulated that reveal this meaning.

  1. It is she who unites all the constituent parts of the cell into one complex unified system, carrying out life processes in a harmonious and collective manner.
  2. Thanks to the water included in the composition, the cytoplasm in the cell functions as a medium for numerous complex biochemical interactions and physiological transformations of substances (glycolysis, nutrition, gas exchange).
  3. This is the main "container" for the existence of all cell organelles.
  4. Due to microfilaments and tubules, it forms a cytoskeleton, binding organelles and allowing them to move.
  5. It is in the cytoplasm that a number of enzymes are concentrated, without which no biochemical reaction occurs.

Summing up, the following must be said. The role of the cytoplasm in the cell is practically key, since it is the basis of all processes, the environment of life and the substrate for reactions.

1. Give examples of living things whose cells are able to maintain a constant shape.

Answer. The cells of plants and fungi, that is, those with a cell wall, retain their constant form.

2. What are the functions of ribosomes?

Answer. Ribosome is the most important non-membrane organelle of a living cell, which serves for the biosynthesis of protein from amino acids according to a given matrix based on genetic informationprovided by messenger RNA (mRNA).

3. What is cytoplasm?

Answer. The internal environment of the cell - the cytoplasm - is a complexly organized system that includes the nucleus, membrane and non-membrane organelles, inclusions that are suspended in the hyaloplasm. The latter is a gel with a degree of viscosity varying depending on the functional state of the cell.

Questions after §15

1. What functions does the cytoskeleton perform?

Answer. All eukaryotes in the cytoplasm have a complex supporting system - the cytoskeleton. It consists of three elements: microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments.

Microtubules permeate the entire cytoplasm and are hollow tubes 20–30 nm in diameter. Their walls are formed by specially twisted filaments built of tubulin protein. The assembly of microtubules from tubulin takes place in the cell center. Microtubules are strong and form the supporting base of the cytoskeleton. They are often positioned to resist cell expansion and contraction. In addition to the mechanical function, microtubules also perform a transport function, participating in the transfer of various substances through the cytoplasm.

The intermediate filaments are about 10 nm thick and are also proteinaceous. Their functions are currently not well understood.

Microfilaments are protein filaments with a diameter of only 4 nm. They are based on actin protein. Sometimes actin filaments are grouped into bundles. Microfilaments are most often located close to the plasma membrane and are able to change its shape, which is very important, for example, for the processes of phagocytosis and pinocytosis.

Thus, the cytoplasm is permeated with structures of the cytoskeleton that maintain the shape of the cell and provide intracellular transport. The cytoskeleton can quickly "disassemble" and "assemble". When it is assembled, organelles can move through its structures with the help of special proteins, getting to those places of the cell where they are needed at the moment.

2. What does the cell center consist of?

Answer. Cell center (centrosome). It is located in the cytoplasm close to the nucleus and is formed by two centrioles - cylinders located perpendicular to each other. The diameter of each centriole is 150–250 nm, and the length is 300–500 nm. The wall of each centriole consists of nine complexes of microtubules, and each complex (or triplet), in turn, is built of three microtubules. The centriole triplets are interconnected by a series of ligaments. The main protein that forms centrioles is tubulin. Tubulin is transported to the area of \u200b\u200bthe cell center through the cytoplasm. Here, the elements of the cytoskeleton are assembled from this protein. Already assembled, they are sent to various parts of the cytoplasm, where they perform their functions.

Centrioles are also required for the formation of the basal bodies of the cilia and flagella. The centrioles double before division. In the process of cell division, they diverge in pairs to opposite poles of the cell and participate in the formation of spindle filaments.

In the cells of higher plants, the cell center is arranged differently and does not contain centrioles

3. What process is carried out in ribosomes?

Answer. The organelles that the cell needs for protein synthesis are ribosomes. Their size is approximately 20 x 30 nm; there are several million of them in a cell. Ribosomes are composed of two subunits - large and small. Each subunit is a complex of rRNA with proteins. Ribosomes are formed in the area of \u200b\u200bthe nucleoli of the nucleus, and then through the nuclear pores they enter the cytoplasm. They carry out the synthesis of proteins, namely, the assembly of protein molecules from amino acids delivered to the ribosome of tRNA. There is a gap between the subunits of the ribosome, in which the mRNA molecule is located, and on the large subunit there is a groove along which the synthesized protein molecule slides. Thus, the process of translation of genetic information is carried out in ribosomes, that is, its translation from the "language of nucleotides" to the "language of amino acids".

Ribosomes can be suspended in the cytoplasm, but more often they are located in groups on the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum of the cell. It is believed that free ribosomes synthesize proteins necessary for the needs of the cell itself, and ribosomes attached to the EPS produce proteins "for export," ie, proteins that are intended for use in the extracellular space or in other cells of the body.

The basis of the chemical composition of the cytoplasm is water - 60-90%, organic and inorganic compounds... The cytoplasm is in an alkaline reaction. A feature of this substance is constant movement or cyclosis, which becomes necessary condition cell life. Metabolic processes take place in the hyaloplasm, a colorless, thick colloidal one. Thanks to the hyaloplasm, the interconnection of the nucleus and organelles is carried out.

The hyaloplasm includes the endoplasmic reticulum or reticulum, a branched system of tubules, canals and cavities, which are delimited by a single membrane. In the form of legumes, mitochondria, the special power plants of the cell, have. Ribosomes are organelles that contain RNA. Another organoid of the cytoplasm is the Golgi complex, named after the Italian Golgi. Small organelles in the form of spheres are lysosomes. They are contained in plant cells. Cavities with cell sap are called vacuoles. There are many of them in the cells of plant fruits. Outgrowths of the cytoplasm are many organelles of movement - cords, cilia, pseudopods.

Functions of the constituents of the cytoplasm

The reticulum provides the creation of a "frame" for mechanical strength and shaping of the cell, that is, it has a form-forming function. On its walls are enzymes and enzyme-substrate complexes, on which the implementation of the biochemical reaction depends. The transfer is carried out along the canals of the reticulum chemical compoundsthus, it performs a transport function.

Mitochondria help break down complex organic matter. In this case, the release of energy occurs, which the cell needs to maintain physiological processes.

Ribosomes are responsible for the synthesis of protein molecules.

The Golgi complex or apparatus performs a secretory function in animal cells, regulates metabolism. In plants, the complex plays the role of a center for the synthesis of polysaccharides, which are located in the cell walls.

Plastids can be of three types. Chloroplasts or green plastids are involved in photosynthesis. A plant cell can hold up to 50 chloroplasts. Chromoplasts contain pigments - anthocyanin, carotenoid. These plastids are responsible for the color of plants in order to attract animals and protect them. Leukoplasts provide the accumulation of nutrients, they can also form chromoplasts and chloroplasts.

Vacuoles are the accumulation of nutrients. They also provide the shaping function of the cell, creating internal pressure.

Various solid and liquid inclusions are storage and excretion substances.

Movement organelles provide movement of cells in space. They are outgrowths of the cytoplasm, are found in unicellular organisms, germ cells, and phagocytes.

Sources:

  • Basic principles of cell theory
  • Function of the contractile vacuole of protozoa

Cytoplasm is a very important cellular component. In its semi-liquid internal environment, there are organelles responsible for the vital functions of the cell. The mobility of the cytoplasm promotes the interaction of organelles with each other. This makes it possible for the processes of intracellular metabolism to occur.

Any cytoplasm in its composition. She is in a semi-liquid state. The cytoplasm contains the nucleus and all the organelles of the cell. Its name is taken from two Greek words - cyto () and (sculpted). water solution organic substances and salts that make up the bulk of the cytoplasm is called hyaloplasm. It contains organelles that perform various functions. The hyaloplasm is permeated by a system of protein filaments called the cytoskeleton. The physico-chemical composition of the cytoplasm is characterized by lability, it is a constantly changing physical system characterized by an alkaline reaction. Most of the physiological processes take place. Newly synthesized substances move in this space, along which other substances are removed from the cell. In the cytoplasm such organelles live and function as the Golgi complex, mitochondria, plastids, the endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, and others. modern theories claims that the cytoplasm is a kind of cellular quantum computer. It regulates all physiological processes in it. All processes of intracellular metabolism are carried out in the cytoplasm. The only exception is the synthesis of nucleic acids, it occurs in the nucleus. Under the control of the nucleus, the cytoplasm is capable of growth and reproduction. Even if part of it is removed, it can be restored. Two layers are distinguished in the cytoplasm. External - ectoplasm. It is the most viscous. Internal - endoplasm. It is in it that the main organelles are located. One of the most important properties of the cytoplasm is the ability to move. Thanks to him, the organelles bind with each other and their intracellular interaction occurs.

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Sources:

  • CYTOPLASMA in 2019

Proteins are the most important organic compounds among all the components of a living cell. They have a different structure and perform a variety of functions. In different cells, they can be from 50% to 80% of the mass.

Proteins: what they are

Proteins are high molecular weight organic compounds. They are made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen atoms, but they can also contain sulfur, iron, and phosphorus.

Protein monomers are amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Polypeptides can have a large number of amino acids in their composition and have a large molecular weight.

The amino acid molecule consists of a radical, an amino group –NH2 and a carboxyl group –COOH. The first group exhibits basic properties, the second - acidic. This determines the dual nature of the chemical behavior of the amino acid - its amphotericity and, in addition, high reactivity. At different ends, amino acids are combined into chains of protein molecules.

The radical (R) is the part of the molecule that differs for different amino acids. It can have the same molecular formula, but a different structure.

Function of proteins in the body

Proteins perform a number of important functions both in individual cells and throughout the body as a whole.

First of all, proteins have a structural function. Cell membranes and organelles are built from these molecules. Collagen is an important component of connective tissue, keratin is part of hair and nails (as well as feathers and horns in animals), elastic protein elastin is needed for ligaments and walls of blood vessels.

The enzymatic role of proteins is no less important. To, all biological enzymes are of a protein nature. Thanks to them, it is possible for biochemical reactions in the body to occur at a pace that is acceptable for life.

Enzyme molecules can consist only of proteins or include a non-protein compound - a coenzyme. Vitamins or metal ions are most often used as coenzymes.

The transport function of proteins is their ability to combine with other substances. So, hemoglobin combines with oxygen and delivers it from the lungs to the tissues, myoglobin transports oxygen to the muscles. Serum blood albumin carries lipids, fatty and other biologically active substances.

Carrier proteins act in the area of \u200b\u200bcell membranes and transport substances through them.

Protective specific proteins for the body. Antibodies produced by lymphocytes fight against foreign proteins, interferons protect against viruses. Thrombin and fibrinogen contribute to the formation and protect the body from blood loss.

Toxins secreted by living things for protective purposes are also of a protein nature. In target organisms, antitoxins are produced to suppress the action of these poisons.

The regulatory function is carried out by regulatory proteins - hormones. They control the course of physiological processes in the body. So, for the level of insulin in the blood, and with its lack, diabetes mellitus occurs.

Proteins sometimes also perform an energy function, but are not the main energy carriers. The complete breakdown of 1 gram of protein gives 17.6 kJ of energy (as in the breakdown of glucose). However, protein compounds are too important for the body to build new structures, and are rarely used as an energy source.

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Vacuole-membrane vesicles in the cytoplasm of the cell, filled with cell sap. Vacuoles in plant cells occupy up to 90% of the volume. Animal cells have temporary vacuoles, which occupy no more than 5% of their volume. The functions of vacuoles depend on which cell they are in.

The main function of vacuoles is the implementation of the relationship between organelles, the transport of substances through the cell.

Functions of plant cell vacuoles

The vacuole is one of the most important organelles of the cell and performs many functions, including: absorbing water, giving color to the cell, removing toxic substances from metabolism, storing nutrients. In addition, the vacuoles of some plants produce milky sap and help the “old” parts of the cell.

The vacuole plays a major role in the absorption of water by the cell. By means of osmotic pressure, water enters the vacuole. As a result, turgor pressure appears in the cell, which causes the cells to stretch during growth. Osmotic water absorption is also important for maintaining the overall water regime of the plant, as well as for the process of photosynthesis.

The vacuole contains colorants called anthocyanins. The color of flowers, fruits, leaves, buds, roots of plants depends on them.

Vacuole removes toxic substances and some secondary metabolites from metabolism. The waste is calcium oxalate crystals. They are deposited in vacuoles in the form of crystals of various shapes. The role of secondary metabolites is not fully understood. Perhaps alkaloids, as a by-product of metabolism, like tannins, with their astringent taste, repel herbivores, which prevents them from eating these plants.

Vacuoles are stored nutrients: mineral salts, sucrose, various (apple, vinegar, lemon, etc.), amino acids, proteins. If necessary, the cytoplasm of the cell can use these substances.

In the vacuoles of the cells of some plants, milky sap is produced. So, the milky juice of Brazilian hevea contains enzymes and substances necessary for the synthesis of rubber.

The vacuoles sometimes contain hydrolytic enzymes, and then the vacuoles act as lysosomes. So, they are able to break down proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids, phytohormones, phytoncides, participate in the breakdown of "old" parts of the cell.

Functions of vacuoles of animal cells

Pulsating (contractile) vacuoles in freshwater protozoa serve for osmotic regulation of the cell. Since the concentration of substances in river water lower than the concentration of substances in the cells of protozoa, contractile vacuoles absorb water, and vice versa, excess water is taken out by