The last century brought humanity two of the most terrible conflicts - the First and Second World Wars, which captured the whole world. And if the echoes of the Patriotic War are still heard, then the clashes of 1914–1918 have already been forgotten, despite their cruelty. Who fought with whom, what were the reasons for the confrontation and in what year did World War I begin?

A military conflict does not start suddenly; there are a number of prerequisites that, directly or indirectly, eventually become the causes of an open clash between armies. Disagreements between the main participants in the conflict, the powerful powers, began to grow long before the start of open battles.

The German Empire began to exist, which was the natural end of the Franco-Prussian battles of 1870-1871. At the same time, the government of the empire argued that the state had no aspirations to seize power and dominate the territory of Europe.

After devastating internal conflicts, the German monarchy needed time to recuperate and recruit military power, for this you need peaceful times. In addition, European states are willing to cooperate with it and refrain from creating an opposing coalition.

Developing peacefully, by the mid-1880s the Germans had become quite strong in the military and economic spheres and changed their foreign policy priorities, beginning to fight for dominance in Europe. At the same time, a course was set for the expansion of the southern lands, since the country did not have overseas colonies.

The colonial division of the world allowed the two strongest states - Great Britain and France - to take possession of economically attractive lands around the world. In order to gain overseas markets, the Germans needed to defeat these states and seize their colonies.

But in addition to their neighbors, the Germans had to defeat the Russian state, since in 1891 it entered into a defensive alliance called the “Concord of the Heart,” or the Entente, with France and England (joined in 1907).

Austria-Hungary, in turn, tried to retain the annexed territories it received (Herzegovina and Bosnia) and at the same time tried to resist Russia, which set as its goal to protect and unite the Slavic peoples in Europe and could start a confrontation. Russia's ally, Serbia, also posed a danger to Austria-Hungary.

The same tense situation existed in the Middle East: it was there that the foreign policy interests of European states collided, who wanted to gain new territories and greater benefits from the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

Here Russia claimed its rights, laying claim to the shores of two straits: the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. In addition, Emperor Nicholas II wanted to gain control over Anatolia, since this territory allowed access by land to the Middle East.

The Russians did not want to allow these territories to be lost to Greece and Bulgaria. Therefore, European clashes were beneficial to them, since they allowed them to seize the desired lands in the East.

So, two alliances were created, the interests and confrontation of which became the fundamental basis of the First World War:

  1. Entente - it consisted of Russia, France and Great Britain.
  2. The Triple Alliance included the empires of the Germans and Austro-Hungarians, as well as the Italians.

It is important to know! Later, the Ottomans and Bulgarians joined the Triple Alliance and the name was changed to the Quadruple Alliance.

The main reasons for the outbreak of the war were:

  1. The desire of the Germans to own large territories and occupy a dominant position in the world.
  2. France's desire to occupy a leading position in Europe.
  3. Great Britain's desire to weaken European countries that posed a danger.
  4. Russia's attempt to take possession of new territories and protect the Slavic peoples from aggression.
  5. Confrontations between European and Asian states for spheres of influence.

The economic crisis and the divergence of interests of the leading powers of Europe, and then other states, led to the beginning of an open military conflict, which lasted from 1914 to 1918.

Germany's goals

Who started the battles? Germany is considered the main aggressor and the country that actually started the First World War. But it is a mistake to believe that she alone wanted a conflict, despite the active preparations of the Germans and the provocation, which became the official reason for open clashes.

All European countries had their own interests, the achievement of which required victory over their neighbors.

By the beginning of the 20th century, the empire was developing rapidly and was well prepared from a military point of view: it had good army, modern weapons and a powerful economy. Due to constant strife between the German lands, until the mid-19th century, Europe did not consider the Germans as a serious adversary and competitor. But after the unification of the lands of the empire and the restoration of the domestic economy, the Germans not only became an important character on the European stage, but also began to think about seizing colonial lands.

The division of the world into colonies brought England and France not only an expanded market and cheap hired force, but also an abundance of food. The German economy began to move from intensive development to stagnation due to market glut, and population growth and limited territories led to food shortages.

The country's leadership came to the decision to completely change its foreign policy, and instead of peaceful participation in European unions, it chose illusory domination through the military seizure of territories. The First World War began immediately after the assassination of the Austrian Franz Ferdinand, which was arranged by the Germans.

Participants in the conflict

Who fought with whom throughout all the battles? The main participants are concentrated in two camps:

  • Triple and then Quadruple Alliance;
  • Entente.

The first camp included the Germans, Austro-Hungarians and Italians. This alliance was created back in the 1880s, its main goal was to confront France.

At the beginning of the First World War, the Italians took neutrality, thereby violating the plans of the allies, and later they completely betrayed them, in 1915 they went over to the side of England and France and took an opposing position. Instead, the Germans had new allies: the Turks and Bulgarians, who had their own clashes with members of the Entente.

In the First World War, to briefly list, in addition to the Germans, the Russians, the French and the British took part, who acted within the framework of one military bloc “Consent” (this is how the word Entente is translated). It was created in 1893–1907 in order to protect the allied countries from the ever-growing military power of the Germans and to strengthen the Triple Alliance. The Allies were also supported by other states that did not want the Germans to strengthen, including Belgium, Greece, Portugal and Serbia.

It is important to know! Russia’s allies in the conflict were also outside Europe, including China, Japan, and the USA.

In World War I, Russia fought not only with Germany, but with a number of smaller states, for example, Albania. Only two main fronts developed: in the West and East. In addition to them, battles took place in Transcaucasia and in the Middle Eastern and African colonies.

Interests of the parties

The main interest of all battles was land; due to various circumstances, each side sought to conquer additional territory. All states had their own interest:

  1. The Russian Empire wanted open access to the seas.
  2. Great Britain sought to weaken Turkey and Germany.
  3. France - to return their lands.
  4. Germany - to expand its territory by capturing neighboring European states, and also gain a number of colonies.
  5. Austria-Hungary – control sea ​​routes and retain annexed territories.
  6. Italy - gain dominance in southern Europe and the Mediterranean.

The approaching collapse of the Ottoman Empire forced states to also think about seizing its lands. The map of military operations shows the main fronts and offensives of the opponents.

It is important to know! In addition to maritime interests, Russia wanted to unite all Slavic lands under itself, and the government was especially interested in the Balkans.

Each country had clear plans to seize territory and was determined to win. Most European countries took part in the conflict, and their military capabilities were approximately the same, which led to a protracted and passive war.

Results

When did the First World War end? It ended in November 1918 - it was then that Germany capitulated, concluding a treaty at Versailles in June of the following year, thereby showing who won the First World War - the French and the British.

The Russians were the losers on the winning side, having withdrawn from the battles as early as March 1918 due to serious internal political divisions. In addition to Versailles, 4 more peace treaties were signed with the main warring parties.

For four empires, the First World War ended with their collapse: the Bolsheviks came to power in Russia, the Ottomans were overthrown in Turkey, the Germans and Austro-Hungarians also became republicans.

There were also changes in the territories, in particular the seizure of: Western Thrace by Greece, Tanzania by England, Romania took possession of Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia, and the French - Alsace-Lorraine and Lebanon. The Russian Empire lost a number of territories that declared independence, among them: Belarus, Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan, Ukraine and the Baltic states.

The French occupied the German Saar region, and Serbia annexed a number of lands (including Slovenia and Croatia) and subsequently created the state of Yugoslavia. Russia's battles in the First World War were costly: in addition to large losses on the fronts, the already worsened situation a difficult situation in economics.

The internal situation was tense long before the start of the campaign, and when, after an intense first year of fighting, the country switched to positional struggle, the suffering people actively supported the revolution and overthrew the unwanted tsar.

This confrontation showed that from now on all armed conflicts will be total in nature, and the entire population and all available resources of the state will be involved.

It is important to know! For the first time in history, opponents used chemical weapons.

Both military blocs, entering into confrontation, had approximately the same firepower, which led to protracted battles. Equal forces at the beginning of the campaign led to the fact that after its end, each country was actively engaged in building up firepower and actively developing modern and powerful weapons.

The scale and passive nature of the battles led to a complete restructuring of the countries' economies and production towards militarization, which in turn significantly influenced the direction of development of the European economy in 1915–1939. Characteristics of this period were:

  • strengthening state influence and control in the economic sphere;
  • creation of military complexes;
  • rapid development of energy systems;
  • growth of defense products.

Wikipedia says that during that historical period of time, the First World War was the bloodiest - it claimed only about 32 million lives, including military personnel and civilians who died from hunger and disease or from bombing. But those soldiers who survived were psychologically traumatized by the war and could not lead a normal life. In addition, many of them were poisoned by chemical weapons used at the front.

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Let's sum it up

Germany, which was confident of its victory in 1914, ceased to be a monarchy in 1918, lost a number of its lands and was greatly weakened economically not only by military losses, but also by mandatory reparations payments. The difficult conditions and general humiliation of the nation that the Germans experienced after defeat by the Allies gave rise to and fueled the nationalist sentiments that would later lead to the conflict of 1939–1945.

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WORLD WAR I
(July 28, 1914 - November 11, 1918), the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved. About 73.5 million people were mobilized; of these, 9.5 million were killed or died from wounds, more than 20 million were wounded, 3.5 million were left crippled.
Main reasons. The search for the causes of the war leads to 1871, when the process of German unification was completed and Prussian hegemony was consolidated in German Empire. Under Chancellor O. von Bismarck, who sought to revive the union system, foreign policy The German government was determined by the desire to achieve a dominant position for Germany in Europe. To deprive France of the opportunity to avenge defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck tried to bind Russia and Austria-Hungary to Germany with secret agreements (1873). However, Russia came out in support of France, and the Alliance of the Three Emperors disintegrated. In 1882, Bismarck strengthened Germany's position by creating the Triple Alliance, which united Austria-Hungary, Italy and Germany. By 1890, Germany took the leading role in European diplomacy. France emerged from diplomatic isolation in 1891-1893. Taking advantage of the cooling of relations between Russia and Germany, as well as Russia's need for new capital, it concluded a military convention and an alliance treaty with Russia. The Russian-French alliance was supposed to serve as a counterweight to the Triple Alliance. Great Britain has so far stood aloof from competition on the continent, but the pressure of political and economic circumstances eventually forced it to make its choice. The British could not help but be concerned about the nationalist sentiments that reigned in Germany, its aggressive colonial policy, rapid industrial expansion and, mainly, the increase in power navy. A series of relatively quick diplomatic maneuvers led to the elimination of differences in the positions of France and Great Britain and the conclusion in 1904 of the so-called. "cordial agreement" (Entente Cordiale). Obstacles to Anglo-Russian cooperation were overcome, and in 1907 an Anglo-Russian agreement was concluded. Russia became a member of the Entente. Great Britain, France and Russia formed the Triple Entente as a counterbalance to the Triple Alliance. Thus, the division of Europe into two armed camps took shape. One of the reasons for the war was the widespread strengthening of nationalist sentiments. Formulating their interests, the ruling circles of each sought to present them as popular aspirations. France hatched plans to return the lost territories of Alsace and Lorraine. Italy, even being in an alliance with Austria-Hungary, dreamed of returning its lands to Trentino, Trieste and Fiume. The Poles saw in the war an opportunity to recreate the state destroyed by the partitions of the 18th century. Many peoples inhabiting Austria-Hungary sought national independence. Russia was convinced that it could not develop without limiting German competition, protecting the Slavs from Austria-Hungary, and expanding influence in the Balkans. In Berlin, the future was associated with the defeat of France and Great Britain and the unification of the countries of Central Europe under the leadership of Germany. In London they believed that the people of Great Britain would live in peace only by crushing their main enemy - Germany. Tensions in international relations were heightened by a series of diplomatic crises - the Franco-German clash in Morocco in 1905-1906; annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Austrians in 1908-1909; finally, the Balkan wars of 1912-1913. Great Britain and France supported Italy's interests in North Africa and thereby weakened its commitment to the Triple Alliance so much that Germany could practically no longer count on Italy as an ally in a future war.
The July crisis and the beginning of the war. After the Balkan Wars, active nationalist propaganda was launched against the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. A group of Serbs, members of the Young Bosnia secret organization, decided to kill the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The opportunity for this presented itself when he and his wife went to Bosnia for training exercises with the Austro-Hungarian troops. Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in the city of Sarajevo by high school student Gavrilo Princip on June 28, 1914. Intending to start a war against Serbia, Austria-Hungary enlisted the support of Germany. The latter believed that the war would become local if Russia did not defend Serbia. But if it provides assistance to Serbia, then Germany will be ready to fulfill its treaty obligations and support Austria-Hungary. In an ultimatum presented to Serbia on July 23, Austria-Hungary demanded that its military units be allowed into Serbia in order to, together with Serbian forces, suppress hostile actions. The answer to the ultimatum was given within the agreed 48-hour period, but it did not satisfy Austria-Hungary, and on July 28 it declared war on Serbia. S.D. Sazonov, Russian Foreign Minister, openly opposed Austria-Hungary, receiving assurances of support from French President R. Poincaré. On July 30, Russia announced general mobilization; Germany used this occasion to declare war on Russia on August 1, and on France on August 3. Britain's position remained uncertain due to its treaty obligations to protect Belgium's neutrality. In 1839, and then during the Franco-Prussian War, Great Britain, Prussia and France provided this country with collective guarantees of neutrality. Following the German invasion of Belgium on 4 August, Great Britain declared war on Germany. Now all the great powers of Europe were drawn into the war. Together with them, their dominions and colonies were involved in the war. The war can be divided into three periods. During the first period (1914-1916), the Central Powers achieved superiority on land, while the Allies dominated the sea. The situation seemed stalemate. This period ended with negotiations for a mutually acceptable peace, but each side still hoped for victory. In the next period (1917), two events occurred that led to an imbalance of power: the first was the entry of the United States into the war on the side of the Entente, the second was the revolution in Russia and its exit from the war. The third period (1918) began with the last major offensive of the Central Powers in the west. The failure of this offensive was followed by revolutions in Austria-Hungary and Germany and the capitulation of the Central Powers.
First period. The Allied forces initially included Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, Montenegro and Belgium and enjoyed overwhelming naval superiority. The Entente had 316 cruisers, while the Germans and Austrians had 62. But the latter found a powerful countermeasure - submarines. By the beginning of the war, the armies of the Central Powers numbered 6.1 million people; Entente army - 10.1 million people. The Central Powers had an advantage in internal communications, which allowed them to quickly transfer troops and equipment from one front to another. In the long term, the Entente countries had superior resources of raw materials and food, especially since the British fleet paralyzed Germany’s ties with overseas countries, from where copper, tin and nickel were supplied to German enterprises before the war. Thus, in the event of a protracted war, the Entente could count on victory. Germany, knowing this, relied on lightning war - "blitzkrieg". The Germans put into effect the Schlieffen plan, which proposed to ensure rapid success in the West by attacking France with large forces through Belgium. After the defeat of France, Germany hoped, together with Austria-Hungary, by transferring the liberated troops, to deliver a decisive blow in the East. But this plan was not implemented. One of the main reasons for his failure was the sending of part of the German divisions to Lorraine in order to block the enemy invasion of southern Germany. On the night of August 4, the Germans invaded Belgium. It took them several days to break the resistance of the defenders of the fortified areas of Namur and Liege, which blocked the route to Brussels, but thanks to this delay, the British transported an almost 90,000-strong expeditionary force across the English Channel to France (August 9-17). The French gained time to form 5 armies that held back the German advance. Nevertheless, on August 20, the German army occupied Brussels, then forced the British to leave Mons (August 23), and on September 3, the army of General A. von Kluck found itself 40 km from Paris. Continuing the offensive, the Germans crossed the Marne River and stopped along the Paris-Verdun line on September 5. The commander of the French forces, General J. Joffre, having formed two new armies from the reserves, decided to launch a counteroffensive. The First Battle of the Marne began on September 5 and ended on September 12. 6 Anglo-French and 5 German armies took part in it. The Germans were defeated. One of the reasons for their defeat was the absence of several divisions on the right flank, which had to be transferred to the eastern front. The French offensive on the weakened right flank made the withdrawal of the German armies to the north, to the line of the Aisne River, inevitable. The battles in Flanders on the Yser and Ypres rivers from October 15 to November 20 were also unsuccessful for the Germans. As a result, the main ports on the English Channel remained in Allied hands, ensuring communication between France and England. Paris was saved, and the Entente countries had time to mobilize resources. The war in the West took on a positional character; Germany’s hope of defeating and withdrawing France from the war turned out to be untenable. The confrontation followed a line running south from Newport and Ypres in Belgium, to Compiegne and Soissons, then east around Verdun and south to the salient near Saint-Mihiel, and then southeast to the Swiss border. Along this line of trenches and wire fences, the length is approx. Trench warfare was fought for 970 km for four years. Until March 1918, any, even minor changes in the front line were achieved at the cost of huge losses on both sides. There were hopes that Eastern Front the Russians will be able to crush the armies of the Central Powers bloc. On August 17, Russian troops entered East Prussia and began to push the Germans towards Koenigsberg. The German generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff were entrusted with leading the counteroffensive. Taking advantage of the mistakes of the Russian command, the Germans managed to drive a “wedge” between the two Russian armies, defeat them on August 26-30 near Tannenberg and drive them out of East Prussia. Austria-Hungary did not act so successfully, abandoning the intention to quickly defeat Serbia and concentrating large forces between the Vistula and the Dniester. But the Russians launched an offensive in a southern direction, broke through the defenses of the Austro-Hungarian troops and, taking several thousand people prisoner, occupied the Austrian province of Galicia and part of Poland. The advance of Russian troops created a threat to Silesia and Poznan, important industrial areas for Germany. Germany was forced to transfer additional forces from France. But an acute shortage of ammunition and food stopped the advance of Russian troops. The offensive cost Russia enormous casualties, but undermined the power of Austria-Hungary and forced Germany to maintain significant forces on the Eastern Front. Back in August 1914, Japan declared war on Germany. In October 1914, Türkiye entered the war on the side of the Central Powers bloc. At the outbreak of war, Italy, a member of the Triple Alliance, declared its neutrality on the grounds that neither Germany nor Austria-Hungary had been attacked. But at secret London negotiations in March-May 1915, the Entente countries promised to satisfy Italy's territorial claims during the post-war peace settlement if Italy came on their side. On May 23, 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on August 28, 1916 on Germany. On western front The British were defeated in the second battle of Ypres. Here, during battles that lasted for a month (April 22 - May 25, 1915), chemical weapons were used for the first time. After this, poisonous gases (chlorine, phosgene, and later mustard gas) began to be used by both warring sides. The large-scale Dardanelles also ended in defeat. landing operation- a naval expedition that the Entente countries equipped at the beginning of 1915 with the goal of taking Constantinople, opening the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits for communication with Russia through the Black Sea, withdrawing Turkey from the war and winning the Balkan states to the side of the allies. On the Eastern Front, by the end of 1915, German and Austro-Hungarian troops ousted the Russians from almost all of Galicia and from most of the territory of Russian Poland. But it was never possible to force Russia to a separate peace. In October 1915, Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, after which the Central Powers, together with their new Balkan ally, crossed the borders of Serbia, Montenegro and Albania. Having captured Romania and covered the Balkan flank, they turned against Italy.

War at sea. Control of the sea allowed the British to freely move troops and equipment from all parts of their empire to France. They kept sea lines of communication open for US merchant ships. German colonies were captured, and German trade through sea routes was suppressed. In general, the German fleet - except for the submarine one - was blocked in its ports. Only occasionally did small flotillas emerge to strike British seaside towns and attack Allied merchant ships. During the entire war there was only one major naval battle- when the German fleet entered the North Sea and unexpectedly met with the British one off the Danish coast of Jutland. Battle of Jutland May 31 - June 1, 1916 led to heavy losses on both sides: the British lost 14 ships, approx. 6800 people killed, captured and wounded; the Germans, who considered themselves victors, - 11 ships and approx. 3100 people killed and wounded. Nevertheless, the British forced the German fleet to retreat to Kiel, where it was effectively blocked. The German fleet no longer appeared on the high seas, and Great Britain remained the mistress of the seas. Having taken a dominant position at sea, the Allies gradually cut off the Central Powers from overseas sources of raw materials and food. Under international law, neutral countries, such as the United States, could sell goods that were not considered “war contraband” to other neutral countries, such as the Netherlands or Denmark, from where these goods could also be delivered to Germany. However, warring countries usually did not bind themselves to adherence to international law, and Great Britain had so expanded the list of goods considered smuggled that virtually nothing was allowed through its barriers in the North Sea. The naval blockade forced Germany to resort to drastic measures. Its only effective means at sea remained the submarine fleet, capable of easily bypassing surface barriers and sinking merchant ships of neutral countries that supplied the allies. It was the turn of the Entente countries to accuse the Germans of violating international law, which obliged them to rescue the crews and passengers of torpedoed ships. On February 18, 1915, the German government declared the waters around the British Isles a military zone and warned of the danger of ships from neutral countries entering them. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine torpedoed and sank the ocean-going steamer Lusitania with hundreds of passengers on board, including 115 US citizens. President William Wilson protested, and the United States and Germany exchanged harsh diplomatic notes.
Verdun and Somme. Germany was ready to make some concessions at sea and look for a way out of the impasse in actions on land. In April 1916, British troops had already suffered a serious defeat at Kut el-Amar in Mesopotamia, where 13,000 people surrendered to the Turks. On the continent, Germany was preparing to launch a large-scale offensive operation on the Western Front that would turn the tide of the war and force France to sue for peace. The ancient fortress of Verdun served as a key point of French defense. After an unprecedented artillery bombardment, 12 German divisions went on the offensive on February 21, 1916. The Germans advanced slowly until the beginning of July, but did not achieve their intended goals. The Verdun “meat grinder” clearly did not live up to the expectations of the German command. Great importance during the spring and summer of 1916 they had operations on the Eastern and Southwestern fronts. In March, Russian troops, at the request of the allies, carried out an operation near Lake Naroch, which significantly influenced the course of hostilities in France. German command was forced to stop attacks on Verdun for some time and, keeping 0.5 million people on the Eastern Front, transfer an additional part of the reserves here. At the end of May 1916, the Russian High Command launched an offensive on the Southwestern Front. During the fighting, under the command of A.A. Brusilov, it was possible to achieve a breakthrough of the Austro-German troops to a depth of 80-120 km. Brusilov's troops occupied part of Galicia and Bukovina and entered the Carpathians. For the first time in the entire previous period of trench warfare, the front was broken through. If this offensive had been supported by other fronts, it would have ended in disaster for the Central Powers. To ease the pressure on Verdun, on July 1, 1916, the Allies launched a counterattack on the Somme River, near Bapaume. For four months - until November - there were continuous attacks. Anglo-French troops, having lost approx. 800 thousand people were never able to break through the German front. Finally, in December, the German command decided to stop the offensive, which cost the lives of 300,000 German soldiers. The 1916 campaign claimed more than 1 million lives, but did not bring tangible results to either side.
Foundations for peace negotiations. At the beginning of the 20th century. The methods of warfare have completely changed. The length of fronts increased significantly, armies fought on fortified lines and launched attacks from trenches, and machine guns and artillery began to play a huge role in offensive battles. New types of weapons were used: tanks, fighters and bombers, submarines, asphyxiating gases, hand grenades. Every tenth resident of the warring country was mobilized, and 10% of the population was engaged in supplying the army. In warring countries for ordinary civil life there was almost no space left: everything was subject to titanic efforts aimed at maintaining war machine. total cost The war, including property losses, according to various estimates, ranged from 208 to 359 billion dollars. By the end of 1916, both sides were tired of the war, and it seemed that the right moment had come to begin peace negotiations.
Second period.
On December 12, 1916, the Central Powers turned to the United States with a request to transmit a note to the allies with a proposal to begin peace negotiations. The Entente rejected this proposal, suspecting that it was made with the aim of breaking up the coalition. Moreover, she did not want to talk about a peace that did not include the payment of reparations and recognition of the right of nations to self-determination. President Wilson decided to initiate peace negotiations and on December 18, 1916, asked the warring countries to determine mutually acceptable peace terms. On December 12, 1916, Germany proposed convening a peace conference. The German civil authorities clearly sought peace, but they were opposed by the generals, especially General Ludendorff, who was confident of victory. The Allies specified their conditions: the restoration of Belgium, Serbia and Montenegro; withdrawal of troops from France, Russia and Romania; reparations; the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France; liberation of subject peoples, including Italians, Poles, Czechs, elimination of the Turkish presence in Europe. The Allies did not trust Germany and therefore did not take the idea of ​​peace negotiations seriously. Germany intended to take part in December 1916 peace conference, relying on the benefits of their military position. It ended with the Allies signing secret agreements designed to defeat the Central Powers. Under these agreements, Great Britain claimed the German colonies and part of Persia; France was to gain Alsace and Lorraine, as well as establish control on the left bank of the Rhine; Russia acquired Constantinople; Italy - Trieste, Austrian Tyrol, most of Albania; Turkey's possessions were to be divided among all allies.
US entry into the war. At the beginning of the war, public opinion in the United States was divided: some openly sided with the Allies; others - such as Irish Americans who were hostile to England, and Americans German origin- supported Germany. Over time, government officials and ordinary citizens became increasingly inclined to side with the Entente. This was facilitated by several factors, most notably the propaganda of the Entente countries and the submarine war of Germany. On January 22, 1917, President Wilson outlined peace terms acceptable to the United States in the Senate. The main one boiled down to the demand for “peace without victory,” i.e. without annexations and indemnities; others included the principles of equality of peoples, the right of nations to self-determination and representation, freedom of the seas and trade, the reduction of armaments, and the rejection of the system of rival alliances. If peace were made on the basis of these principles, Wilson argued, a world organization of states could be created that would guarantee security for all peoples. On January 31, 1917, the German government announced the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare with the aim of disrupting enemy communications. The submarines blocked the Entente's supply lines and put the Allies in an extremely difficult position. There was growing hostility toward Germany among Americans, since the blockade of Europe from the West foreshadowed troubles for the United States as well. In case of victory, Germany could establish control over the entire Atlantic Ocean. Along with the above-mentioned circumstances, other motives also pushed the United States to war on the side of its allies. US economic interests were directly linked to the Entente countries, as military orders led to the rapid growth of American industry. In 1916, the warlike spirit was spurred by plans to develop combat training programs. Anti-German sentiment among North Americans increased even more after the publication on March 1, 1917 of Zimmermann's secret dispatch of January 16, 1917, intercepted by British intelligence and transferred to Wilson. German Foreign Minister A. Zimmermann offered Mexico the states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona if it supported Germany's actions in response to the US entry into the war on the side of the Entente. By early April, anti-German sentiment in the United States had reached such intensity that Congress voted on April 6, 1917 to declare war on Germany.
Russia's exit from the war. In February 1917, a revolution occurred in Russia. Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate the throne. The Provisional Government (March - November 1917) could no longer conduct active military operations on the fronts, since the population was extremely tired of the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks, who took power in November 1917, signed an armistice agreement with the Central Powers at the cost of huge concessions. Three months later, on March 3, 1918, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty was concluded. Russia renounced its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. Ardahan, Kars and Batum went to Turkey; huge concessions were made to Germany and Austria. In total, Russia lost approx. 1 million sq. km. She was also obliged to pay Germany an indemnity in the amount of 6 billion marks.
Third period.
The Germans had ample reason to be optimistic. The German leadership used the weakening of Russia, and then its withdrawal from the war, to replenish resources. Now it could transfer the eastern army to the west and concentrate troops on the main directions of attack. The Allies, not knowing where the attack would come from, were forced to strengthen positions along the entire front. American aid was late. In France and Great Britain, defeatist sentiments grew with alarming force. On October 24, 1917, Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Italian front near Caporetto and defeated the Italian army.
German offensive 1918. On the foggy morning of March 21, 1918, the Germans launched a massive attack on British positions near Saint-Quentin. The British were forced to retreat almost to Amiens, and its loss threatened to break the Anglo-French united front. The fate of Calais and Boulogne hung in the balance. On May 27, the Germans launched a powerful offensive against the French in the south, pushing them back to Chateau-Thierry. The situation of 1914 repeated itself: the Germans reached the Marne River just 60 km from Paris. However, the offensive cost Germany major losses - both human and material. The German troops were exhausted, their supply system was shaken. The Allies managed to neutralize German submarines by creating convoy and anti-submarine defense systems. At the same time, the blockade of the Central Powers was carried out so effectively that food shortages began to be felt in Austria and Germany. Soon the long-awaited American aid began to arrive in France. The ports from Bordeaux to Brest were filled with American troops. By the beginning of the summer of 1918, about 1 million American soldiers had landed in France. On July 15, 1918, the Germans took last try breakthrough at Chateau-Thierry. The second decisive battle of the Marne unfolded. In the event of a breakthrough, the French would have to abandon Reims, which, in turn, could lead to an Allied retreat along the entire front. In the first hours of the offensive, German troops advanced, but not as quickly as expected.
The last Allied offensive. On July 18, 1918, a counterattack by American and French troops began in order to relieve pressure on Chateau-Thierry. At first they advanced with difficulty, but on August 2 they took Soissons. At the Battle of Amiens on August 8, German troops suffered a heavy defeat, and this undermined their morale. Previously, German Chancellor Prince von Hertling believed that by September the Allies would sue for peace. “We hoped to take Paris by the end of July,” he recalled. “That’s what we thought on the fifteenth of July. And on the eighteenth, even the greatest optimists among us realized that everything was lost.” Some military personnel convinced Kaiser Wilhelm II that the war was lost, but Ludendorff refused to admit defeat. The Allied offensive began on other fronts as well. On June 20-26, the Austro-Hungarian troops were thrown back across the Piave River, their losses amounted to 150 thousand people. Ethnic unrest flared up in Austria-Hungary - not without the influence of the allies, who encouraged the desertion of Poles, Czechs and southern Slavs. The Central Powers mustered their remaining forces to hold off the expected invasion of Hungary. The path to Germany was open. Tanks and massive artillery shelling were important factors in the offensive. At the beginning of August 1918, attacks on key German positions intensified. In his Memoirs, Ludendorff called August 8 - the beginning of the Battle of Amiens - "a black day for the German army." The German front was torn apart: entire divisions surrendered into captivity almost without a fight. By the end of September even Ludendorff was ready to capitulate. After the September offensive of the Entente on the Soloniki front, Bulgaria signed an armistice on September 29. A month later, Türkiye capitulated, and on November 3, Austria-Hungary. To negotiate peace in Germany, a moderate government was formed headed by Prince Max of Baden, who already on October 5, 1918 invited President Wilson to begin the negotiation process. In the last week of October, the Italian army launched a general offensive against Austria-Hungary. By October 30, the resistance of the Austrian troops was broken. Italian cavalry and armored vehicles made a swift raid behind enemy lines and captured the Austrian headquarters in Vittorio Veneto, the city that gave the entire battle its name. On October 27, Emperor Charles I made an appeal for a truce, and on October 29, 1918 he agreed to conclude peace on any terms.
Revolution in Germany. On October 29, the Kaiser secretly left Berlin and went to the general headquarters, feeling safe only under the protection of the army. On the same day, in the port of Kiel, the crew of two warships disobeyed and refused to go to sea on a combat mission. By November 4, Kiel came under the control of the rebel sailors. 40,000 armed men intended to establish councils of soldiers' and sailors' deputies in northern Germany on the Russian model. By November 6, the rebels took power in Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen. Meanwhile supreme commander Allies, General Foch said that he was ready to receive representatives of the German government and discuss with them the terms of the armistice. The Kaiser was informed that the army was no longer under his command. On November 9, he abdicated the throne and a republic was proclaimed. The next day, the German Emperor fled to the Netherlands, where he lived in exile until his death (d. 1941). On November 11, at the Retonde station in the Compiegne Forest (France), the German delegation signed the Compiegne Armistice. The Germans were ordered to liberate the occupied territories within two weeks, including Alsace and Lorraine, the left bank of the Rhine and the bridgeheads in Mainz, Koblenz and Cologne; establish a neutral zone on the right bank of the Rhine; transfer to the Allies 5,000 heavy and field guns, 25,000 machine guns, 1,700 aircraft, 5,000 steam locomotives, 150,000 railway cars, 5,000 automobiles; release all prisoners immediately. Naval forces had to surrender all submarines and almost the entire surface fleet and return all Allied merchant ships captured by Germany. The political provisions of the treaty provided for the denunciation of the Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest peace treaties; financial - payment of reparations for destruction and return of valuables. The Germans tried to negotiate an armistice based on Wilson's Fourteen Points, which they believed could serve as a preliminary basis for a "peace without victory." The terms of the truce required practically unconditional surrender. The Allies dictated their terms to a bloodless Germany.
Conclusion of peace. The peace conference took place in 1919 in Paris; During the sessions, agreements regarding five peace treaties were determined. After its completion, the following were signed: 1) the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on June 28, 1919; 2) Saint-Germain Peace Treaty with Austria on September 10, 1919; 3) Neuilly Peace Treaty with Bulgaria November 27, 1919; 4) Trianon Peace Treaty with Hungary on June 4, 1920; 5) Peace Treaty of Sevres with Turkey on August 20, 1920. Subsequently, according to the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923, changes were made to the Treaty of Sevres. Thirty-two states were represented at the peace conference in Paris. Each delegation had its own staff of specialists who provided information regarding geographical, historical and economic situation those countries for which decisions were made. After Orlando left the internal council, not satisfied with the solution to the problem of territories in the Adriatic, the main architect of the post-war world became the “Big Three” - Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George. Wilson compromised on several important points in order to achieve the main goal of creating the League of Nations. He agreed to the disarmament of only the Central Powers, although he initially insisted on general disarmament. The size of the German army was limited and was supposed to be no more than 115,000 people; universal conscription was abolished; The German armed forces were to be staffed by volunteers with a service life of 12 years for soldiers and up to 45 years for officers. Germany was prohibited from having combat aircraft and submarines. Similar conditions were contained in peace treaties, signed with Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria. A fierce debate ensued between Clemenceau and Wilson over the status of the left bank of the Rhine. The French, for security reasons, intended to annex the area with its powerful coal mines and industry and create an autonomous Rhineland state. France's plan contradicted the proposals of Wilson, who opposed annexations and favored self-determination of nations. A compromise was reached after Wilson agreed to sign loose war treaties with France and Great Britain, under which the United States and Great Britain pledged to support France in the event of a German attack. The following decision was made: the left bank of the Rhine and a 50-kilometer strip on the right bank are demilitarized, but remain part of Germany and under its sovereignty. The Allies occupied a number of points in this zone for a period of 15 years. The coal deposits known as the Saar Basin also became the property of France for 15 years; the Saar region itself came under the control of the League of Nations commission. After the expiration of the 15-year period, a plebiscite was envisaged on the issue of statehood of this territory. Italy got Trentino, Trieste and most of Istria, but not the island of Fiume. Nevertheless, Italian extremists captured Fiume. Italy and the newly created state of Yugoslavia were given the right to resolve the issue of the disputed territories themselves. According to the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was deprived of its colonial possessions. Great Britain acquired the German East Africa and the western part of German Cameroon and Togo, South-West Africa, the north-eastern regions of New Guinea with the adjacent archipelago and the Samoan Islands were transferred to the British dominions - the Union of South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. France received most of German Togo and eastern Cameroon. Japan received the Marshall, Mariana and Caroline Islands from Germany. Pacific Ocean and the port of Qingdao in China. Secret treaties among the victorious powers also envisaged the division of the Ottoman Empire, but after the uprising of the Turks led by Mustafa Kemal, the allies agreed to revise their demands. The new Treaty of Lausanne repealed the Treaty of Sèvres and allowed Turkey to retain Eastern Thrace. Türkiye regained Armenia. Syria went to France; Great Britain received Mesopotamia, Transjordan and Palestine; the Dodecanese islands in the Aegean Sea were given to Italy; the Arab territory of Hejaz on the Red Sea coast was to gain independence. Violations of the principle of self-determination of nations caused Wilson's disagreement; in particular, he sharply protested against the transfer of the Chinese port of Qingdao to Japan. Japan agreed to return this territory to China in the future and fulfilled its promise. Wilson's advisers proposed that instead of actually transferring the colonies to new owners, they should be allowed to govern as trustees of the League of Nations. Such territories were called “mandatory”. Although Lloyd George and Wilson opposed penalties for damages, the fight on this issue ended in victory French side. Reparations were imposed on Germany; The question of what should be included in the list of destruction presented for payment was also subject to lengthy discussion. At first, the exact amount was not mentioned, only in 1921 its size was determined - 152 billion marks (33 billion dollars); this amount was subsequently reduced. The principle of self-determination of nations became key for many peoples represented at the peace conference. Poland was restored. The task of determining its boundaries was not easy; Of particular importance was the transfer to her of the so-called. the "Polish corridor", which gave the country access to the Baltic Sea, separating East Prussia from the rest of Germany. New ones have emerged in the Baltic region independent states: Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland. By the time the conference was convened, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy had already ceased to exist, and Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Romania arose in its place; the borders between these states were controversial. The problem turned out to be difficult due to mixed settlement different nations. When establishing the borders of the Czech state, the interests of the Slovaks were affected. Romania doubled its territory at the expense of Transylvania, Bulgarian and Hungarian lands. Yugoslavia was created from the old kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro, parts of Bulgaria and Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Banat as part of Timisoara. Austria remained a small state with a population of 6.5 million Austrian Germans, a third of whom lived in impoverished Vienna. The population of Hungary had decreased greatly and was now approx. 8 million people. At the Paris Conference, an exceptionally stubborn struggle was waged around the idea of ​​​​creating a League of Nations. According to the plans of Wilson, General J. Smuts, Lord R. Cecil and their other like-minded people, the League of Nations was supposed to become a guarantee of security for all peoples. Finally, the League's charter was adopted and, after much debate, four working groups were formed: the Assembly, the Council of the League of Nations, the Secretariat and the Permanent Court of International Justice. The League of Nations established mechanisms that could be used by its member states to prevent war. Within its framework, various commissions were also formed to solve other problems.
See also LEAGUE OF NATIONS. The League of Nations agreement represented that part of the Treaty of Versailles that Germany was also offered to sign. But the German delegation refused to sign it on the grounds that the agreement did not comply with Wilson's Fourteen Points. Ultimately, the German National Assembly recognized the treaty on June 23, 1919. The dramatic signing took place five days later at the Palace of Versailles, where in 1871 Bismarck, ecstatic with victory in the Franco-Prussian War, proclaimed the creation of the German Empire.
LITERATURE
History of the First World War, in 2 vols. M., 1975 Ignatiev A.V. Russia in the imperialist wars of the early 20th century. Russia, USSR and international conflicts first half of the 20th century. M., 1989 To the 75th anniversary of the beginning of the First World War. M., 1990 Pisarev Yu.A. Secrets of the First World War. Russia and Serbia in 1914-1915. M., 1990 Kudrina Yu.V. Turning to the origins of the First World War. Paths to safety. M., 1994 World War I: debatable problems of history. M., 1994 World War I: pages of history. Chernivtsi, 1994 Bobyshev S.V., Seregin S.V. The First World War and prospects for social development in Russia. Komsomolsk-on-Amur, 1995 World War I: Prologue of the 20th century. M., 1998
Wikipedia


    • Almost 100 years ago, an event occurred in world history that turned the entire world order upside down, capturing almost half the world in a whirlpool of hostilities, leading to the collapse of powerful empires and, as a consequence, to a wave of revolutions - the Great War. In 1914, Russia was forced to enter the First World War, a brutal confrontation in several theaters of war. In a war marked by the use of chemical weapons, the first large-scale use of tanks and aircraft, a war with a huge number of casualties. The outcome of this war became tragic for Russia - a revolution, fratricidal Civil War, the split of the country, the loss of faith and thousand-year-old culture, the split of the entire society into two irreconcilable camps. Tragic crash state system Russian Empire revolutionized the age-old way of life of all layers of society without exception. A series of wars and revolutions, like an explosion of colossal power, shattered the world of Russian material culture into millions of fragments. The history of this catastrophic war for Russia, for the sake of the ideology that reigned in the country after October revolution was seen as historical fact and how the war is imperialist, and not the war “For Faith, Tsar and Fatherland.”

    And now our task is to revive and preserve the memory of the Great War, its heroes, the patriotism of the entire Russian people, their moral and spiritual values, and their history.

    It is quite possible that the world community will quite widely celebrate the 100th anniversary of the start of the First World War. And most likely, the role and participation of the Russian army in the Great War of the early twentieth century, as well as the history of the First World War, will be forgotten today. In order to counteract the facts of misrepresentation national history ROO "Academy of Russian Symbols "MARS" opens a memorial folk project dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the First World War.

    As part of the project, we will try to objectively cover the events of 100 years ago using newspaper publications and photographs from the Great War.

    Two years ago, the people's project “Fragments of Great Russia” was launched, the main task of which is to preserve the memory of the historical past, the history of our country in objects of its material culture: photographs, postcards, clothes, signs, medals, household and household items, all kinds of everyday little things and other artifacts that formed the integral environment of the citizens of the Russian Empire. Formation of a reliable picture Everyday life Russian Empire.

    Origin and beginning great war

    Entering the second decade of the 20th century, European society was in anxious state. Vast layers of it experienced the extreme burden of military service and war taxes. It was found that by 1914, the expenditures of major powers on military needs had grown to 121 billion, and they absorbed about 1/12 of the total income received from the wealth and work of the population of cultural countries. Europe was clearly managing at a loss, burdening all other types of earnings and profits with the cost of destructive means. But at a time when the majority of the population seemed to be protesting with all their might against the increasing demands of armed peace, certain groups wanted the continuation or even intensification of militarism. These were all the suppliers to the army, navy and fortresses, the iron, steel and machine factories that produced guns and shells, the numerous technicians and workers employed in them, as well as the bankers and paper holders who provided loans to the government for equipment. Moreover, the leaders of this type of industry developed such a taste for the enormous profits that they began to seek real war, expecting even larger orders from her.

    In the spring of 1913, Reichstag deputy Karl Liebknecht, the son of the founder of the Social Democratic party, exposed the machinations of the war supporters. It turned out that Krupp's company systematically bribed employees in the military and naval departments in order to learn the secrets of new inventions and attract government orders. It turned out that French newspapers, bribed by the director of the German gun factory, Gontard, were spreading false rumors about French weapons in order to make the German government want to take up more and more weapons in turn. It turned out that there are international companies that benefit from the supply of weapons to various states, even those at war with each other.

    Under pressure from the same circles interested in the war, governments continued their armaments. At the beginning of 1913, almost all states experienced an increase in active-duty army personnel. In Germany they decided to increase the figure to 872,000 soldiers, and the Reichstag gave a one-time contribution of 1 billion and an annual new tax at 200 million. On this occasion, in England, supporters of militant policies started talking about the need to introduce universal military service so that England could catch up with the land powers. The position of France in this matter was especially difficult, almost painful, due to the extremely weak population growth. Meanwhile, in France from 1800 to 1911 the population increased only from 27.5 million. to 39.5 million, in Germany over the same period it rose from 23 million. up to 65. With such a relatively weak increase, France could not keep up with Germany in the size of the active army, although it took 80% of the conscription age, while Germany was limited to only 45%. The dominant radicals in France, in agreement with the nationalist conservatives, saw only one outcome - to replace the two-year service introduced in 1905 with a three-year one; under this condition, it was possible to increase the number of soldiers under arms to 760,000. In order to carry out this reform, the government tried to stir up militant patriotism; By the way, Minister of War Milliran, a former socialist, organized brilliant parades. Socialists protested against the three-year service, large groups workers, entire cities, for example Lyon. Realizing, however, the need to take measures in view of the impending war, succumbing to general fears, the socialists proposed introducing a nationwide militia, meaning universal armament while maintaining the civilian character of the army.

    It is not difficult to identify the immediate culprits and organizers of the war, but it is very difficult to describe its remote causes. They are rooted primarily in the industrial rivalry of peoples; the industry itself grew out of military conquests; it remained a merciless force of conquest; where she needed to create new space for herself, she made weapons work for herself. When military communities arose in her interests, they themselves became dangerous tools, as if a defiant force. Huge military reserves cannot be kept with impunity; the car becomes too expensive, and then there is only one thing left to do - put it into operation. In Germany, due to the peculiarities of its history, military elements have most accumulated. It was necessary to find official positions for 20 very royal and princely families, for the Prussian landowning nobility, it was necessary to give birth to arms factories, it was necessary to open a field for the investment of German capital in the abandoned Muslim east. The economic conquest of Russia was also a tempting task, which the Germans wanted to facilitate by weakening it politically, moving it inland from the seas beyond the Dvina and Dnieper.

    William II and Archduke Ferdinant of France, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, undertook to implement these military-political plans. The latter's desire to gain a foothold on the Balkan Peninsula was posed by independent Serbia as a significant obstacle. Economically, Serbia was completely dependent on Austria; Now the next step was the destruction of its political independence. Franz Ferdinand intended to annex Serbia to the Serbo-Croatian provinces of Austria-Hungary, i.e. to Bosnia and Croatia, in order to satisfy the national idea, he came up with the idea of ​​​​creating Greater Serbia within the state on equal rights with the two former parts, Austria and Hungary; the power had to move from dualism to trialism. In turn, William II, taking advantage of the fact that the Archduke’s children were deprived of the right to the throne, directed his thoughts towards creating an independent possession in the east by seizing the Black Sea region and Transnistria from Russia. From the Polish-Lithuanian provinces, as well as the Baltic region, it was planned to create another state in vassal dependence on Germany. In the upcoming war with Russia and France, William II hoped for the neutrality of England in view of the extreme reluctance of the British to land operations and the weakness of the English army.

    The course and features of the great war

    The outbreak of war was accelerated by the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, which occurred while he was visiting Sarajevo, the main city of Bosnia. Austria-Hungary took the opportunity to charge the entire Serbian people with preaching terror and demand that Austrian officials be allowed into Serbian territory. When Russia began mobilizing in response to this and to protect the Serbs, Germany immediately declared war on Russia and began military action against France. Everything was done by the German government with extraordinary haste. Only with England did Germany try to come to an agreement regarding the occupation of Belgium. When the British ambassador in Berlin referred to the Belgian neutrality treaty, Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg exclaimed: “but this is a piece of paper!”

    Germany's occupation of Belgium prompted a declaration of war by England. The German plan, apparently, was to defeat France and then attack Russia with all their might. IN short term All of Belgium was captured, and the German army occupied northern France, moving towards Paris. In the great battle of the Marne, the French stopped the German advance; but the subsequent attempt by the French and British to break through the German front and drive the Germans out of France failed, and from that time on the war in the west became protracted. The Germans erected a colossal line of fortifications along the entire length of the front from the North Sea to the Swiss border, which abolished the previous system of isolated fortresses. Opponents turned to the same method of artillery warfare.

    At first the war was fought between Germany and Austria, on the one hand, and Russia, France, England, Belgium and Serbia, on the other. The powers of the Triple Entente established an agreement among themselves not to conclude a separate peace with Germany. Over time, new allies appeared on both sides, and the theater of war expanded enormously. Japan, Italy, which separated from triple alliance, Portugal and Romania, and to the union of central states - Türkiye and Bulgaria.

    Military operations in the east began along a large front from the Baltic Sea to the Carpathian Islands. The actions of the Russian army against the Germans and especially the Austrians were initially successful and led to the occupation of most of Galicia and Bukovina. But in the summer of 1915, due to a lack of shells, the Russians had to retreat. What followed was not only the cleansing of Galicia, but also the occupation of the Kingdom of Poland, Lithuanian and part of the Belarusian provinces by German troops. Here, too, a line of impregnable fortifications was established on both sides, a formidable continuous rampart, beyond which none of the opponents dared to cross; only in the summer of 1916 did the army of General Brusilov advance into the corner of eastern Galicia and slightly change this line, after which a stationary front was again determined; with the accession of Romania to the powers of consent, it extended to the Black Sea. During 1915, as Turkey and Bulgaria entered the war, military operations began in Western Asia and on the Balkan Peninsula. Russian troops occupied Armenia; The British, moving from the Persian Gulf, fought in Mesopotamia. The English fleet tried unsuccessfully to break through the fortifications of the Dardanelles. After this, the Anglo-French troops landed in Thessaloniki, where the Serbian army was transported by sea, forced to leave their country to the capture of the Austrians. Thus, in the east, a colossal front stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Persian Gulf. At the same time, the army operating from Thessaloniki and the Italian forces occupying the entrances to Austria on the Adriatic Sea formed a southern front, the significance of which was that it cut off the alliance of the Central Powers from the Mediterranean Sea.

    At the same time, large battles took place at sea. The stronger British fleet destroyed the German squadron that appeared on the high seas and locked the rest of the German fleet in the harbors. This achieved a blockade of Germany and cut off the supply of supplies and shells to it by sea. At the same time, Germany lost all of its overseas colonies. Germany responded with submarine attacks, destroying both military transport and enemy merchant ships.

    Until the end of 1916, Germany and its allies generally held superiority on land, while the powers of consent maintained dominance at sea. Germany occupied the entire strip of land that it outlined for itself in the plan for “Central Europe” - from the North and Baltic seas through the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor to Mesopotamia. It had a concentrated position and the ability, taking advantage of an excellent network of communications, to quickly transfer its forces to places threatened by the enemy. On the other hand, its disadvantage was the limitation of food supplies due to being cut off from the rest of the World, while its opponents enjoyed freedom of sea movement.

    The war that began in 1914, in its size and ferocity, far surpasses all wars that have ever been fought by mankind. In previous wars only active armies Only in 1870, in order to defeat France, did the Germans use reserve personnel. In the great war of our time, the active armies of all nations constituted only a small part, one significant or even one tenth of the total composition of the mobilized forces. England, which had an army of 200-250 thousand volunteers, introduced universal conscription during the war itself and promised to increase the number of soldiers to 5 million. In Germany, not only almost all men of military age were taken, but also young men 17-20 years old and elderly people over 40 and even over 45 years old. The number of people called up to arms throughout Europe may have reached 40 million.

    The losses in battles are correspondingly great; Never before have so few people been spared as in this war. But its most striking feature is the predominance of technology. In the first place in it are cars, aircrafts, armored vehicles, colossal guns, machine guns, asphyxiating gases. The Great War is primarily a competition of engineering and artillery: people bury themselves in the ground, create labyrinths of streets and villages there, and when storming fortified lines, pelt the enemy with an incredible number of shells. So, during the Anglo-French attack on German fortifications near the river. Somme in the fall of 1916, up to 80 million were released on both sides in a few days. shells. Cavalry is almost never used at all; and the infantry has very little to do. In such battles, the opponent who has the best equipment and more material decides. Germany wins over its opponents military training, which took place over 3-4 decades. It turned out to be extremely important that since 1870 it had been in its possession richest country iron Lorraine. With their rapid onslaught in the autumn of 1914, the Germans prudently took possession of two areas of iron production, Belgium and the rest of Lorraine, which was still in the hands of France (all of Lorraine produces half of the total amount of iron produced by Europe). Germany also possesses huge deposits of coal, necessary for processing iron. These circumstances contain one of the main conditions for Germany's stability in the struggle.

    Another feature of the great war is its merciless nature, plunging cultural Europe into the depths of barbarism. In the wars of the 19th century. did not touch civilians. Back in 1870, Germany announced that it was fighting only with French army, but not with the people. IN modern warfare Germany not only ruthlessly takes all supplies from the population of the occupied territories of Belgium and Poland, but they themselves are reduced to the position of convict slaves who are herded to the most difficult work of building fortifications for their victors. Germany brought the Turks and Bulgarians into battle, and these semi-savage peoples brought their cruel customs: they do not take prisoners, they exterminate the wounded. No matter how the war ends, the European peoples will have to deal with the desolation of vast areas of the earth and the decline of cultural habits. The situation of the working masses will be more difficult than it was before the war. Then European society will show whether it has preserved enough art, knowledge and courage to revive a deeply disturbed way of life.


    Today no one remembers when it was World War I, who fought with whom and what caused the conflict itself. But millions of soldiers' graves throughout Europe and modern Russia They do not let us forget about this bloody page of history, including that of our state.

    Causes and inevitability of war.

    The beginning of the last century was quite tense - revolutionary sentiments in the Russian Empire with regular demonstrations and terrorist attacks, local military conflicts in the southern part of Europe, the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the exaltation of Germany.

    All this did not happen in one day, the situation developed and escalated over decades and no one knew how to “let off steam” and at least delay the start of hostilities.

    By and large, each country had unsatisfied ambitions and grievances against its neighbors, which, in the old fashioned way, they wanted to resolve using force of arms. They just didn’t take into account the fact that technological progress gave real “infernal machines” into human hands, the use of which led to bloodbath. These were the words used by veterans to describe many battles of that period.

    The balance of power in Europe.

    But in a war there are always two conflicting sides trying to get their way. During WWI these were Entente and Central Powers.

    When starting a conflict, it is customary to place all the blame on the losing side, so let’s start with that. To the list of Central Powers on different stages wars included:

    • Germany.
    • Austria-Hungary.
    • Türkiye.
    • Bulgaria.

    There were only three states in the Entente:

    • Russian empire.
    • France.
    • England.

    Both alliances were formed at the end of the nineteenth century, and for some time they balanced political and military forces in Europe.

    The awareness of an inevitable major war on several fronts at the same time often stopped people from making hasty decisions, but the situation could not continue this way for long.

    How did the First World War start?

    The first state to announce the start of hostilities was Austro-Hungarian Empire. As enemy spoke Serbia, which sought to unite under its leadership all the Slavs in southern region. Apparently this policy was not particularly liked by the restless neighbor, who did not want to have a powerful confederation at his side that could jeopardize the very existence of Austria-Hungary.

    Reason for declaring war was caused by the murder of the heir to the imperial throne, who was shot by Serbian nationalists. Theoretically, this would have ended there - this is not the first time that two countries in Europe have declared war on each other and carried out offensive or defensive actions with varying success. But the fact is that Austria-Hungary was only a protégé of Germany, which had long wanted to reshape the world order in its favor.

    The reason was the country's failed colonial policy, which got involved in this fight too late. One of the advantages of having a huge number of dependent states was a practically unlimited market. Industrialized Germany desperately needed such a bonus, but could not get it. It was impossible to resolve the issue peacefully; the neighbors safely received their profits and were not eager to share with anyone.

    But defeat in hostilities and the signing of surrender could change the situation somewhat.

    Allied participating countries.

    From the above lists it can be concluded that no more than 7 countries, but why then is the war called World War? The fact is that each of the blocks had allies who entered or left the war at certain stages:

    1. Italy.
    2. Romania.
    3. Portugal.
    4. Greece.
    5. Australia.
    6. Belgium.
    7. Japanese Empire.
    8. Montenegro.

    These countries did not make a decisive contribution to the overall victory, but we must not forget their active participation in the war on the side of the Entente.

    In 1917, the United States joined this list after another attack by a German submarine on a passenger ship.

    Results of the war for the main participants.

    Russia was able to fulfill the minimum plan for this war - provide protection for the Slavs in Southern Europe. But the main objective was much more ambitious: control over the Black Sea straits could make our country a truly great maritime power.

    But divide Ottoman Empire and the then leadership failed to get a few of its most “tasty” fragments. And given the social tension in the country and the subsequent revolution, slightly different problems arose. The Austro-Hungarian Empire also ceased to exist - the worst economic and political consequences for the initiator.

    France and England were able to gain a foothold in a leading position in Europe, thanks to impressive contributions from Germany. But Germany faced hyperinflation, abandonment of the army, and a severe crisis with the fall of several regimes. This led to the desire for revenge and the NSDAP at the head of the state. But the United States was able to make capital from this conflict, suffering minimal losses.

    We should not forget what the First World War was, who fought with whom and what horrors it brought to society. Growing tensions and conflicts of interests may once again lead to similar irreparable consequences.

    Video about the First World War

    First World War became the largest military conflict of the first third of the twentieth century and all the wars that took place before that. So when did World War I start and what year did it end? The date July 28, 1914 is the beginning of the war, and its end is November 11, 1918.

    When did the first world war start?

    The beginning of the First World War was the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary on Serbia. The reason for the war was the murder of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian crown by the nationalist Gavrilo Princip.

    Speaking briefly about the First World War, it should be noted that the main reason for the hostilities that arose was the conquest of a place in the sun, the desire to rule the world with the emerging balance of power, the emergence of Anglo-German trade barriers, the absolute phenomenon in the development of the state as economic imperialism and territorial claims one state to another.

    On June 28, 1914, Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo. On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, starting main war first third of the twentieth century.

    Rice. 1. Gavrilo Princip.

    Russia in the First World War

    Russia announced mobilization, preparing to defend the fraternal people, which brought upon itself an ultimatum from Germany to stop the formation of new divisions. On August 1, 1914, Germany declared an official declaration of war on Russia.

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    In 1914, military operations on the Eastern Front took place in Prussia, where the rapid advance of Russian troops was driven back by a German counteroffensive and the defeat of Samsonov's army. The offensive in Galicia was more effective. On the Western Front, the course of military operations was more pragmatic. The Germans invaded France through Belgium and moved at an accelerated pace to Paris. Only at the Battle of the Marne was the offensive stopped by Allied forces and the parties moved on to a long trench war that lasted until 1915.

    In 1915, Germany's former ally, Italy, entered the war on the side of the Entente. This is how he was educated southwestern front. The fighting took place in the Alps, giving rise to a mountain war.

    22 April 1915 during the Battle of Ypres German soldiers used chlorine poison gas against Entente forces, which became the first gas attack in history.

    A similar meat grinder happened on the Eastern Front. The defenders of the Osovets fortress in 1916 covered themselves with unfading glory. The German forces, several times superior to the Russian garrison, were unable to take the fortress after mortar and artillery fire and several assaults. After this, a chemical attack was used. When the Germans, walking in gas masks through the smoke, believed that there were no survivors left in the fortress, Russian soldiers ran out at them, coughing blood and wrapped in various rags. The bayonet attack was unexpected. The enemy, many times superior in number, was finally driven back.

    Rice. 2. Defenders of Osovets.

    At the Battle of the Somme in 1916, tanks were used for the first time by the British during an attack. Despite frequent breakdowns and low accuracy, the attack had a more psychological effect.

    Rice. 3. Tanks on the Somme.

    In order to distract the Germans from the breakthrough and pull forces away from Verdun, Russian troops planned an offensive in Galicia, the result of which was to be the surrender of Austria-Hungary. This is how it happened" Brusilovsky breakthrough", which, although it moved the front line tens of kilometers to the west, did not solve the main problem.

    At sea, a major battle took place between the British and Germans near the Jutland Peninsula in 1916. The German fleet intended to break the naval blockade. More than 200 ships took part in the battle, with the British outnumbering them, but during the course of the battle there was no winner, and the blockade continued.

    The United States joined the Entente in 1917, for which entering a world war on the winning side at the very last moment became a classic. The German command erected a reinforced concrete “Hindenburg Line” from Lens to the Aisne River, behind which the Germans retreated and switched to a defensive war.

    French General Nivelle developed a plan for a counteroffensive on the Western Front. Massive artillery bombardment and attacks on different sectors of the front did not produce the desired effect.

    In 1917, in Russia, during two revolutions, the Bolsheviks came to power and concluded a shameful separate Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. On March 3, 1918, Russia left the war.
    In the spring of 1918, the Germans launched their last, “spring offensive.” They intended to break through the front and take France out of the war, however, the numerical superiority of the Allies prevented them from doing this.

    Economic exhaustion and growing dissatisfaction with the war forced Germany to the negotiating table, during which a peace treaty was concluded at Versailles.

    What have we learned?

    Regardless of who fought whom and who won, history has shown that the end of the First World War did not solve all of humanity's problems. The battle for the redivision of the world did not end; the allies did not finish off Germany and its allies completely, but only depleted them economically, which led to the signing of peace. World War II was only a matter of time.

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