Start XX century. It is characterized by the exacerbation of the struggle between countries for the markets of raw materials and the sale of goods, for dominance in the international arena. In connection with the expansion of German expansion, Russia and the United Kingdom in 1907 signed an agreement on the division of spheres of influence in Iran, Afghanistan and Tibet. Following the "heartguard" of France and England in 1904, the Russian-English agreement led to the formation of the Russian-Franco-British Union, finally issued in 1907 and received the name Entente. Europe split into two hostile camps - the Triple Union (Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary) and Annta (France, England, Russia). The first began world War.

Causes of the First World War

  • The aggravation of contradictions between industrial powers due to markets for markets for raw materials, spheres of influence.
  • The struggle for the redistribution of peace between the desired union and anntha.
  • The desire of developed countries to expansion - territorial, military-political, financial and economic, socio-cultural expansion.

Russian goals in war

  • Strengthening Russia's position in the Balkans during the provision of assistance to Slavic peoples.
  • Fight for control over Black Sea! Straits.
  • Countering Austria-Hungary aggression, in relation to Serbia.

Raise to war

June 28, 1914. The heir of the Austro-Hungarian throne of the Austro-Hungarian throne of the Eret Duke of Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo Bosnian gymnasium Gavrili Principle is the nationality by nationality.

World War I.
MAIN EVENTS

1914
July 23 Austria-Hungary, with the support of Germany, accused Serbia in the murder there, and put forward to her ultimatum.
July 28th Austria-Hungary declared the failure to comply with the ultimatum and announced Serbia War.
July 30-31 Mobilization began in Russia.
August 1 Germany in response to the beginning mobilization announced the war of Russia.
August 3rd Germany declared France war.
August 4 England joined the war.
August 6. Austria-Hungary declared war of Russia.
Fall A number of combat operations were carried out, the seizure of Lviv by Russian troops, the defeat of the 2nd Russian army.
Results: 1) Runted the strategic plan of Germany - the lightning and alternate defeat of France and Russia, 2) none of the parties achieved decisive success.

1915
During a year Maintenance martialctions Transferred to the Eastern Front, the goal is to defeat the Russian troops.
Spring Summer A breakthrough of the German troops was carried out: Russian troops were ousted from Galicia, Poland, the part of the Baltic States, Ukraine and Belarus.
8 September Nicholas II accepted the role of commander-in-chief.
By the end of the year The war on all fronts took the position that was extremely unprofitable Germany. German command decided to re-move their efforts on West FrontBy carrying out a breakthrough in the area of \u200b\u200bthe French fortress Verden.
Results: 1) Runted the strategic plan of Germany - to withdraw Russia from the war, 2) the struggle acquired a positional character on all fronts.

1916
February 13-16 Russian troops occupied Erzurum.
March 18-30 A narrocal operation was held - the offensive of Russian troops, who did not have combat success, but the facilitious position of the allies under the verte.
May 22 - September 7 In the course Brusilovsky breakthrough Russian troops on South-West Front Army of Austria-Hungary and Germany suffered defeat.
During a year Germany lost strategic initiative.
Results: 1) The offensive of the Russian troops saved the French fortress Verden, 2) Germany lost the strategic initiative, 3) Romania spoke on the side of the Entente.

1917-1918
Winter 1917 Mitava and Trapezundic operations.
April 18, 1917 A note of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Temporary Government of Russia P. N. Milyukova was published about the loyalty of Russia to the Union obligations. The document is addressed to the governments of the Entente countries.
November 7, 1917 October Revolution in Russia. The Bolsheviks came to power immediately accepted the decree on the world.
December 15, 1917 Soviet Russia signed a separable truce with Germany and Turkey.
February 18, 1918 The offensive of the Austro-German troops throughout the Eastern Front after the refusal of the People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs of the Soviet Government L. D. Trotsky to agree to the Ultimatum of the Germans.
March 3, 1918 Brest world is concluded between Soviet Russia and central European powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary), Turkey.
Results: 1) The Russian army is completely demoralized, the people require the world, 2) On November 20 (December 3), 1917, the Bolsheviks began negotiations on the world, and on March 3, 1918, the Brest world was signed.

Results of war for Russia

  • The Russian Empire lost Poland, Finland, Baltic States, Ukraine and part of Belarus (territory managed in Germany, some of them were formally proclaimed independent).
  • Russia was inferior to Turkey Kars, Ardagan, Batum.
  • Germany was paid 6 billion stamps of the Contribution.

Influence of war on Russian society

At the beginning of hostilities, the country captured the wave of patriotism. But after the first defeats of the Russian Army, a significant part of society was aware of the futility of war for Russia.

The First World War strongly complicated the lives of people. The orientation of the industry for military orders led to a shortage of consumption goods, which caused a significant increase in prices for them. Also loading railways Military transport led to interruptions in the supply of products into large cities.

By 1916, the strike movement again gained strength, and along with economic requirements, political sounds. Due to heavy economic Regulations The peasants did not want to sell agricultural products, preferring to wait for the best times. By the end of 1916, in 31 provinces, the government was forced to introduce pRODIVERSE - Forced cutting bread on solid prices.

Unrest in the rear also led to the fall of the discipline at the front. Huge and often unjustified losses have a negative impact on the moral spirit of the army and public opinion on the war. Losses on the front and instability in the economy also led to a decrease in the authority of the imperial power. It reached the open criticism of Nicholas II's actions by various parties. A flurry of discontent caused the figure of Rasputin, who was close to the family of the emperor and, using his influence on the empress, intervened in cases concerning government management. In Russia, gradually

The history of science is largely political, and a number of significant extraordinary heroes are caused not only interest, but also the most controversial points of view, often obverse, conjunctural, to a large extent built on the ideological foundation. In this regard, the Giant Figure of Peter I is most characteristic: disputes about it and the results of his reign continues three hundred years. Otherwise, it could not be: applying steep measures, it, like no other Russian sovereign, had the greatest impact on the historical fate of Russia.

In world history there is little ingenious characters, which can be unambiguously characterized by a primitive formula of kind or angry genius, the more such a bright, complex and contradictory figure, like Peter the Great. When analyzing the ambiguous results of the reign of the most famous Russian king, you can only compare its positive and negative sides and draw conclusions that it was more.

There is no doubt that, on the threshold of the XVIII century, Russia was in the systemic state crisis and for the sake of further successful development needed indigenous, immediate and effective transformations. The inverse of them was the establishment of absolute monarchical authorities in the country, the destruction of the remaining few freedoms, numerous victims, the impoverishment of the people and the final consolidation of the peasants. In other ways to quickly achieve the goal at that time, the king did not dispose, but to recruit the whole nation to the service of government goals and to sleep with the intended path all the opposite forces. It was a fee for a technical and cultural breakthrough, without which he would not take place: Russia has always achieved great success only with strong authoritarian government controlling all areas of life and processes in the country subordinate to one idea. It was just the case when the goal and its achievement justify funds. Peter left behind not only heavy memory, but also built in thirty years a powerful power, capable of solving the geopolitical, economic, scientific and cultural tasks that stood in front of the country.

Not quite correctly judge the past from the position of modern views and moral principles. Much of the fact that today it seems to us as violence and cruelty by people of the early XVIII century perceived as a natural position of things. All sorts of reforms change the usual way of life, entail losses for many people, among which are always affected, configured to change very negatively. With epochal reforms of such an overwhelming majority, with which in those conditions without coercion, nothing could be done. Without violence, the transformation would be dragged on long yearsRussia could hopelessly retard from developed European countries, which would have created a threat national Security. Sooner or later, painful reforms would still have to carry out: remaining the patriarchal medieval country in the coming era of large European wars, Russia risked to lose state independence. The recovered country at that time, the historical time limit could already be insufficient to survive in dashing times. Countries that continued to go "their own" way, aside from roads of technical progress, fell under European pressing, even such ancient and once powerful powers as China and India. And Poland, well-known Poland, was subjected to section between Austria, Russia and Prussia.

The charge of Petrovsky reforms turned out to be so powerful that the state model created by him was almost no change in two centuries. After the death of Peter I, she began to give failures, slipped, turned out to be a brake for pressing subsequent state reformsin which the country needed in the changed conditions - democratic processes and new advanced economic models were gaining momentum in Western Europe, and Russia, for a long time not deciding to raise his hand serfdom, again trammed with the change of change of epoch, fanatically clinging to the absolute monarchy until at the beginning of the 20th century, the boiler of the Russian locomotive broke the three revolutions from below and did not put it on the rails of large-scale utopia on the incarnation of communism's ideas. But Peter never said that the state system created by him should remain unchanged, on the contrary, believed that the country should be changed according to the challenges of time. He created the model that turned out to be quite effective at a certain historical moment and is not responsible for the fact that the subsequent generation of Russian kings turned out to be so inert and conservative, which was held behind Peter's heritage, as the sacred cow, when Western Europe, trying more modern economic Both social models continued to develop successfully. The backlog of Russia from developed states is felt today.

The great sovereign died, without giving the throne with a worthy to the successor of his case, did not ensure the effective continuity of power, as a result of which the next Russia was swept palace coupsBut who is able to predict his own death in fifty two years? The premature end of the emperor and the progress of most subsequent kings from the Romanov House did not allow Russia to catch up with the countries of Western Europe in terms of economic, technical and cultural development, but the transformation conducted by a great reformer still provided a fairly powerful buoyancy potential of the Russian state ship to continue its successful historical swimming in The World Ocean, become a full participant in international processes.

Peter is a unique personality. Before him, in world history there were no such examples when, for one life, a reformer was able to change the look of a huge country, to make it make such a powerful modernization jerk, releasing the mighty will and impressive work of history itself. And no other people committed such a feat, he wanted it or not, what did the Russian people committed together with his king. Undoubtedly, Peter I is a brilliant strategist and a brilliant tactic, an outstanding commander, politician and a statesman. But, first of all, he made the right to be the right to make the right and unbelievable love of his homeland, which he hit Russia, like a tornado, raised the country on my piles, pulled it out of the Marsh of Middle Ages, told the whip and, crawling around, drove into science, to progress and Power.

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"Peter I: good or angry genius of Russian history?" With this report at the Faculty of Philology of St. Petersburg state University In the club "Modernity through the prism of literature" (Curator Georgy Medvedev) made a recognized connoisseur of the Petrovsky era Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor of the University of Evgeny Viktorovich Anisimov.

Recently, in connection with the reforms carried out, the interest in the great reformer of Russia Peter I. Is Peter I. Is Petr a great sovereign? And did it cost to cut the window to Europe? What would Russia be if Peter's reforms did not happen?

Assessing the identity and activities of Peter, everyone agrees that it was an influential historical figure. No one has never considered him a man, unconsciously used the power or blindly walking on a random path.

The famous historian S.M.Solovyov responded about Peter in enthusiastic colors, attributing him all the successes of Russia as in internal affairsand in foreign Policy, showed the organic and historical preparedness of reforms.

Voltaire the main value of Petrovsky reforms determines the progress that Russians have achieved over 50 years, other nations cannot achieve this for 500.

Known swedish writer August Strinberg so described Peter: "Barbarian, civilized Russia; He, who built the cities, did not want to live in them ... "

"Westerners" positively assessed by Petrovsky reforms, thanks to which Russia became a great power and joined the European civilization.
"Slavophiles" believed that only the price of the ruin of the country, Russia was erected into the rank of the European Power. Russian population during the reign of Peter due to underpring wars decreased to the number of 1695

The famous historian N.M. Karamzin, recognizing Peter the Summer Great, sternly criticizes him for excessive passion for foreign. A sharp change in the "old" life and national traditions undertaken by the emperor is not always justified. As a result, Russian educated people "became citizens of the world, but ceased to be, in some cases, citizens of Russia."

Historian V.O. Kestchevsky thought that Peter did the story, but did not understand her. To protect the fatherland from enemies, he devastated him more than any enemy ... After him, the state became stronger, and the people were poorer. "He hoped only to impose the benefits to him by the people with the power."
"Mount threated to the one who at least secretly, at least in Khmel would think:" The king leads us to good, and whether these flour are not in vain, will they lead to the flour to many hundreds of years? "But thinking even feeling Or, in addition to humility, it was prohibited. "

According to P.N.Milukov, the reforms were carried out by Peter spontaneously, from the case of the case, under pressure from specific circumstances, without any logic and plan, were "reforms without reformer."

The identity of Peter I and its reform is extremely contradictory. Peter did not in the country of the most important thing: did not cancel the serfdom. Temporary improvements in the present reached Russia for the crisis in the future.

I will give the most interesting moments of the discussion:

Professor Anisimov E.V. It believes that Peter I should consider the reforms from two sides. On the one hand, Peter's reforms were historically inevitable, because in Russia there was a systemic crisis, economic lag, there was not even silver for the chasing of money. The church and dynastic split brought to confrontation in society. Russia pursued continuous military defeats. The international prestige of Russia was as low. The Swedes laughed at Russian ambassadors who demanded to return to the justice of the banks of the Neva, originally belonged to the Russians.

But perhaps Russia had another way of reforming and development. Russia The second half of the 17th century is not Middle Ages. For European culture, Russia after Byzantium joined the Polish-Ukrainian culture.

Space of Russia is its wealth. The bad is the Russian king who did not attach anything.

For Russian mentality it is very important to conscious of your belonging to the Great Victorious Nation.

Russia, thanks to Peter, she began to be flushed with developed European powers, possessing grand military might.
But for what is the Grand Military Power?
North War It cost 500 thousand people out of 12 million people. But 87% were not combat losses; People gone from behind hunger and disease.

To Peter in Russia there was not a single manufactory. And by the end of his reign there were more than two hundred advanced enterprises. 100% of Russian iron was exported. In Russia, it was the most advanced mining legislation: who found the ore and will develop it, that and the Earth.

But at the same time, a free free-free concept was destroyed. All were de jure "Slaves" of the king. In one of the decrees, it was said: "There are no free now in Russia." 96% of workers in the Urals industry were serfs. 98% of orders walked on defense. Passport system has been introduced.

Thanks to Peter Russia has become an empire. What is bad in the empire? A good lifeuntil separatism starts. Residents of the Empire Cosmopolitan, do not give rise to nationalism. The main thing is the subject, and not a nationality!

Russian culture has become the world, thanks to Peter, thanks to the Empire.
But at the same time, it is from Petrovsky times that the Russian traditional culture, "Moscow Starina", is underway.

However, culture can be global and without an empire. For example, the culture of rebirth in Italy.
Assyrian Empire And the German Reich did not bring anything good.

In Russian, 20 thousand words and foreign expressions. Of these, 4 thousand were introduced for 25 years of the Board of Peter. As a result, we began to talk in European Russian.

The concept of individual freedom and intelligence comes from Peter. But at the same time, not a single person was really free. State violence in all forms. Police cruel state. Progress through violence!

Peter forced priests to swear that they would disclose the secret of confession if it contains the composition of the crime. And Russian people threw Russian churches, because it was a trade, office.

Historian N.M. Karamzin wrote: "Becoming Europeans, we stopped being Russian. How can people respect themselves if to humiliate him in his past? ".

Historian V.O. Westchevsky wrote: "Thunderstorms and power Peter wanted to cause amateur at the slave-owned nobility. He wanted a slave, remaining a slave, acted consciously and freely. "

There is an incorrect idea, as if to Peter on the spot, where Petersburg stands, there was almost a desert place. In the book "Petersburg to St. Petersburg" it is well shown that the place here was quite lively, and international. At the scene of the summer garden was the Garden of Swedish Captain, and in the place of the Smolny Russian village. To Peter 250 ships came to the mouth of the Neva, and the Swedes did not interfere with this.

Today, the historical figure of Peter I suits everyone, all political trends.
They say, in the office of Prime Minister Vladimir Putin hangs portrait of Petra Great.

Peter I is a dangerous example for imitation.
Peter killed his son - Tsarevich Alexei. Thus, Peter went against the Divine Truth, violating moral values.

There is human logic and state logic. The logic of the state almost always does not coincide with the logic of human.
State priorities And values \u200b\u200bdo not coincide with universal!

When a person has a long time in power, he creates a written inadequate idea of \u200b\u200breality.

A conspiracy against Peter from Tsarevich Alexei was not. But many were against the king.

Major Glebov became the lover of the first wife of Peter I Evdokia Lopukhina, but did not confess even under scary torture.

The state does not tolerate the persistence of human. Old Believers were secretly sulfate in the Petropavlovsk fortress and descended under the ice.

"Russian tragedy comes against the background of European scenery."

In Russia, there is always no time. Petrovsky fleet rot in fresh water St. Petersburg, because there was no time to dry the brica for the construction of ships.

Historical myths order politicians. The myth of bad Russia to Peter comes from Peter himself, as an excuse for the reforms held by him.

History N. exact science. Do not trust sources, because the sources write people.

Now there is freedom of historical research. But a targeted campaign is going to historical research Enter into a certain framework with a uniform understanding of history.

I asked a question: There is a secret of the death of Peter the Great. King died as a result political conspiracy Or from own diseases?
- Peter died of the consequences of venereal diseases, which were kept constantly. Peter had a harem. Ekaterina's wife supplied Peter Girls. Peter coited with Menshikov, and with twins ...!

- How does Peter differ from Stalin and Ivan the Terrible?
- Stalin and Grozny not "Westerners". The general is that in Russia there is no price to a person; Man is "material", "camp dust." But Peter was not tyrant.

I asked the question: Peter proved with his reforms that only the Western way could only be the only possible way of development of Russia. What is today the ratio between the global trend of development and national features?
Professor Anisimov E.V. answered:
- We belong to European civilization. It is necessary to stop beating with the West, otherwise the fate of Byzantium will suffer.
"When you're in Europe, you feel asiat, and when in Asia - by Europeans."

My idea of \u200b\u200bPeter the first was formed in childhood on the movie "Peter First" with Nikolai Simonov in the lead role. In school, we studied Roman Alexei Tolstoy "Peter First". I myself read the book Yuri German "Russia Young".
Peter seemed the perfect ruler - quite in the spirit of socialist realism - strict, but fair, inhibit more about the good of the Fatherland than themselves.

Peter the first could have repeatedly repeat after Ivan Grozny: "Maybe I and a sinner for business, as a man, I am a sinner, but as a king, I am righteous!"

In Russia, the authoritarian power always won. Otherwise, with such a state, it was not cope, inseminate the decay to the specific principality.
Without a strong state, Russia will cease to exist. In this country, do not survive alone. Here, the principle "every for itself" suicide. Here, "you can only be saved together" - this is the essence of the Russian idea!
The story teaches that the slightest weakening of the Russian state leads to his decay and the country's division.

What is more important: the unity of the state or human rights? Man for the state or state for a person?
In the Western Model, the state serves a person, respects human rights. In the Eastern Model, the state is more important than a separate person, which can be replaced as a damaged gear.
Russia is 23 Asian Country, and therefore we have the interests of the unity of the state objectively more important than the interests of a particular person.

State power, probably, as no other, obeys necessity, and only externally resembles arbitrariness. Whatever they say, and the authorities are primarily responsible, and for the entire people responsibility!

Is it permissible for the rulers for the sake of preserving power to crime laws moral and human, as well as legal laws (they are established)?
Morals subordinate to politics or politics should obey morality?

The writer Daniel Garin in the book "Evening with Peter Great", in my opinion, somewhat idealizes the identity of the Tsar reformer. At a meeting in the book shop of writers, I gave Daniel born my novel, in which one of the heroes says:
"When it comes to the preservation of the state, no place for morals. For the sake of the state, any evil is good. Yes, people die. But what to do? Forest cabin - pinch fly. What do some victims mean when the integrity of the state is put on the map! End justifies the means. Winners do not judge! If victory is won, people forgets its achievements. The ruler becomes the one who is not afraid to cross over the morality and the conscience, who is capable of any measure necessary for the state! " (from my Roman-Bul "Wanderer" (Mysteria) on the site New Russian literature

People's Musketer Mikhail Boyarsky in an interview "Tsar or Motherland?" Said: "I was born in the city of Peter the first, it's nice, that it is he is a symbol of St. Petersburg. To serve him - yes, that's great. Although he was largely cruel, but it was left! Was dissatisfied? Of course, were. And Brill's beards, and chopped heads, and Peter himself, as historians say, was built on the bones. " (AIF No. 38 September 22-28, 2010).

In the construction of St. Petersburg, more than 100 thousand people died!
Is it possible to justify the king that ruined many thousands of lives for the construction of a city in a swamp, which built the capital on the bones of their subjects!?

P.S. Who wants to listen to the discussion completely, can download the audio file by reference.

An impartial, objective and fascinating biography of Peter I. Who is he, an outstanding ruler of the Earth Russian and founder Great Empire Or a cruel tyrant who plunged the country into a protracted ruin war, the crown of victims and deprivation for the purposes that were not worth it? The brown cramp of original Russia and a separate path of its historical development or genius, who indicated her the road to a new world of a worthy future? The complex and controversial identity of the most extraordinary Russian king is revealed by the author as through his private lifeand in the process of large-scale state and public transformations into a difficult and unique time for Russia.

Right holders! The presented fragment of the book is placed in coordination with the distributor of legal content Ltres LLC (no more than 20% of the source text). If you think that the placement of the material violates your or anyone, let us know.

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    Estimation of the centuries near people lived kikimors, lles, vampires, waswolves, houses. For a long time, we hid our existence, but over time, magic, like human technologies, has reached such a level that it became unprofitable to hide in the forests and dungeons. Now, thanks to spells, we live freely among people: in cities, side by side with you, although you do not suspect about it. And we are just like everyone, we use the Internet. We even have our own police! And, of course, own medicine, about which I, Olga Belov, I know not at the break. After all, by profession, I am a doctor. Although it is more often called a witch in a white coat.

  • Quest Academy. Magic rebuses
    Efimnyuk Marina Vladimirovna

    Winter holidays behind, the academic half of the year begins! I made up a plan and was going to follow him: it is crushed with the library, ignore other people's departures, throw out one of the white-wing aristocrat from the head. But everything goes again with a knuckle! The aristocrat does not want to forget, the new comrade on the quest team is annoying to a toothbrush, and even some joker sends secret magic messages. And how, tell me for grace, focus on classes, when it is so waved or rebuilding, or to give in to the emotions?

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