Ancient story: Egypt. Culture, pharaohs, pyramids. Egypt - flourishing and sunset of civilization how much Egyptian civilization existed

Anthem God Hapi

Praying for prosperity for both shores, thrive, prosper, HAPPI, thrive, the gifts of the fields of people and livestock. Prosperies, prosperity, HAPAP, flourishes, flourish, you are, beautiful gifts.

North Africa with its insignificant precipitation is almost unsuitable for life, but it was here that Egyptian appeared. The basis of this civilization was NIL, carrying his waters from Ethiopian Highlands and Central Africa to the Mediterranean Sea. Thanks to the Great River of Ancient Egypt, in the III Millennium BC. e. turned into a prosperous state of the Eastern Mediterranean and remained such as the Roman conquest in 30 BC. e.

More than ten thousand years ago, the climate of North Africa was less dry. Nomadic tribes of hunters and collectors inhabited those areas that the desert absorbed today. The valley and Delta of the River Nile with swampy, flooded lands were considered a cunning place.

Centers were held, the climate of the desert of the Sahara became all the land and the II millennium BC. e. Almost did not differ from the weather conditions of the XXI century. n. e. With the enhancement of drought and the onset of the desert, people settled around water sources, more intensely using natural resources in oases and near the Nile. Here they were the transition to agriculture in the VII-V millenniums BC. e.

Gradually, with an expansion of arable land, the population of the valley and the Neil delta grew. To the IV millennium BC e. With different types of farms and the pace of development. They have developed in unrestricted historical and climatic zones: Merimda - in the Delta district and Badari - in Upper Egypt. Merimda culture developed faster, contacts with other countries were closer, and it was in the Delta Nile the first cities appeared. In subsequent centuries, numerous cities with the district (Nom, as the ancient Greeks called it) and their own rulers (nomarhami) arose throughout the course of the Great River. And only about 3000 BC. e. In the pool, the Nile formed a single centralized state that included the entire Nile Valley - from the Delta in the north to the first thresholds in the south.

The political unity of the country favored the attachment of Egypt to the Nile Valley. This valley, the unchanged core of the state, changed little in its sizes. Its increase depended not so much from the military success of the Egyptian weapons, as from progress in the conquest of the river itself: the original lands of Egypt gradually included the Nile Valley until the second, and then third and fourth thresholds in the south. The country grew and at the expense of the development of the desert sites in the West and the East from the riverbed. But, one way or another, the increments of the territories were insignificant. The narrow strip of the earth along the shores of the Great River, clamped by deserts, is the "Range" of Egyptian. Frames defined by nature itself became the basis of the stability of the Great Power for three millennia. They led all the features of this majestic civilization, which can be called civilization of the river.

Valley Nila

The warm climate of this state and the fertile soil of the Nile Valley predetermined. But Neil is a wayward river. The peculiarity of the water regime is regular spills. Floods are caused by melting of snow in the Abyssinian Mountains, where the origins of the blue Nile are located, and tropical rains in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Great Lakes of Central Africa, from where the White Neal originates.

Here is the ancient described the spill of the Nile. For four days, the channel "Green Nile" comes out, filling with mud and tina, and then another 15 days flowing "Red Nile", full of fertile il. By the beginning of August, the whole land flooded with water, and only the city and the villages, as if the island, rise from a huge, limitless swamp.

Features of the culture and worldview of Egyptians are largely obliged to the Nile. Their picture of the world, unlike most other peoples, was not focused on the north, but south, to the sources of the river. The calendar was determined by the Nile and Stars. The new year came in mid-July, when water rose before the flood. River dictated and three years of year. Each of them consisted of four months: Spill (July - October); Revival (November - February) - Water came up with the fields, and proceeded to their processing; Hot time (March - June) - the harvest period and the lowest water level. Rolling Nile - Hapi became God giving abundance. From HAPPI compared itself pharaohs and local to know in their wealth and power. He was depicted in the form of a fat man bringing the gifts of the Earth to the gods. He was not erected by temples, and only once a year, at the beginning of the spill, where the ancient border of the state was lying in the south and where the river came to the mountains, arranged the Happi holiday, brought the gifts to God and melted him in the hymns.

The spill was a source of life, but without artificial structures, the Nile Valley would remain the fastest marsh in the midst of the sands. To master the river, i.e. to dig irrigation canals and ducts, to make embankments, contain irrigation facilities in the serviceability, began with the emergence of agriculture using simple tools - hoe and carrying baskets.

Crossed by irrigation facilities, Egypt is already in the diverse period, in the IV millennium BC. e., became a country of exceptional fertility. The word "area" ("Mr.") on the letter corresponded to the sign depicting the Earth divided by the irrigation network for four-squares.

But only major groups of people could be packed by the river - this was not under the power of the conquest of the Nile became the root cause of the birth of the state in the valley.

The distant country by whom Ellina gave the name Egypt, that is, "mystery, mystery." And she fully justifies her name, remaining not only in the world, but also the secret one. The residents of the Nile Valley themselves called their territory "Ta-Mary" - "Land of Beloved".

Ancient Egypt, the culture of which is surprisingly difficult and multifaceted, was significantly different from his neighbors. This fact led to the fact that many researchers put forward a hypothesis extraterrestrial origin Founders of the kingdom. Moreover, the knowledge of this people had amazing.

And her features

Highly developed, complicated, rich culture of the ancient Egyptian kingdom influenced further development World. Not only many eastern countries, but also the whole scream from this inexhaustible treasury of knowledge and traditions. This heritage of all mankind has its own characteristics that give it an original character. For example, much depended on the climatic belt in which an ancient Egypt was located. His culture developed in conditions of difficult: a desert desert, remoteness from the sea, the heat of heat, dust storms, dependence on the river spills and the layer of the alley. Therefore, there is nothing surprising in the fact that the Egyptians worshiped the Nile, trembled before crocodiles inhabited in him, rejoiced the sunrise.

The culture of this cradle of civilizations is characterized by two words: "traditionalism" and "conservatism". The Egyptians have not changed its system of values, radical innovations contributed to it. They carefully retained their developments, followed by famous artistic techniques, canons, ideas. Of course, in different periods of culture of ancient Egypt, new elements arose, but they appeared slowly and did not contradict the established principles. This approach made it possible to achieve perfection of each sample of art or other branch of life.

History of culture of ancient Egypt

The history of the greatest civilization of the world has more than three thousand years. At the dawn of its development, the Egyptians were just learned to process the fruitful il, and at sunset it was a powerful country with ambitious structures, water supply, medicine, astronomy, art, complex belief system. Historians allocate three periods in the development of the country of the Great Happie (Nile):

1. Ancient kingdom, which existed in 2800-2250. BC e.
2. (from 2050 to 1700 BC. e.).
3. New kingdom (1580-1070 BC. E.).

Accordingly, three periods of development of ancient Egyptian culture are also distinguished with this section.

Conclusion

Ancient Egypt, whose culture and today interested in modern people, - the country of fertile. After all, people, despite the slave, almost hellish work, managed to preserve optimism, feeling beautiful and harmony. Here at every step you can find an architectural masterpiece: a luxurious temple or a majestic pyramid, a silent sphinx or a colossal statue.

In the territory where ancient Egypt was located before, the culture of which is considered in our article, scientists are constantly working. Archaeologists, historians, Egyptologists are trying to solve the secrets of this country. But, despite the advanced technologies and the achievements of science, these mysteries still do not become less.

The term "Egypt" (AIGYPTOS) comes from the Phoenician "Hicupte" - a distorted Egyptian "Hakkapt" ("Church of Ptah"), the names of the ancient Egyptian capital of Memphis. The Egyptians themselves called their "Kemet" ("Black Earth") in the color of the black soil in the Nile Valley as opposed to the "Red Earth" (desert).

Geography and natural conditions.

Egypt is located in the northeast of the African continent and is associated with the front Asia Suez Crest. In antiquity, Egypt was understood by the valley formed by the lower course of the Nile. From the north, Egypt was limited by the Mediterranean Sea, from the West - Libyan plate, from the East - Arabian (Eastern) Highlands, from the south - the 1st Niel threshold. He decayed to the upper (actual Nile Valley) and Nizhny Egypt (region of the delta, a wide mouth of the Nile of several sleeves, with its shape resembling a triangle).

The Nile Valley was a long and narrow oasis (from 1 to 20 km wide), locked on both sides by two mountain chains and is lowered in the south (at the 1st threshold mountain chains directly approached the river); It was open only in the northeast. This led to the relative closure and independence of the ancient Egyptian civilization.

Neil ("Big River"), the longest river of the world (6671 km), is formed from the fusion of the White Nile, arising from the Tropical Africa lakes, and the Blue Nile, originating in the Tana Lake on Ethiopian Highlands; In its current, he passes six thresholds and a branched mouth in the Mediterranean Sea. The annual spills beginning in mid-July and reaching the peak in the fall, after the spring retreat, leave a layer of fertile ral on the Nile shores, which creates extremely favorable conditions for agriculture. Neil is the main transport artery, connecting all parts of the valley among themselves and with the Mediterranean Sea. In the conditions of almost the absence of rains (with the exception of the delta), it is the only source of moisture. It is not surprising that the Egyptians were supported by their river and called Egypt "Voice Nile".

The effective use of Nile's benefits was impossible without collective and organized labor of all living in his valley. The uneven spill (then insufficient water rise, then the flood, equally threatened the crop) caused the need for a single system for regulating and distributing water (its removal to remote and elevated places, the factor of the dam, the device of spare tanks, the drainage of the marshes using the channels). The "Big River", which demanded the combined efforts of the entire population of the Nile Valley, turned out to be the main factor in the creation of the ObnegiPet statehood.

Another important natural factor The development of the ancient Egyptian civilization was the desert. On the one hand, she contributed to its closets, preventing contacts with neighboring peoples, and carried her a constant threat, saturated hostile tribes and sandy storms; The Egyptians had to fight her all the time, creating obstacles to the upcoming sands and retavating the territory necessary for the farming. On the other, formed over the desert pillar of warm air provided for most of the year access to the Valley of the North Wind from the Mediterranean Sea, which enriched it with salts that feed plants, and maintained a wet and temperate climate; Only in April and May the southeastern wind of Hamsin fell into Egypt.

The vegetable and animal world of Egypt was quite diverse. Cultivated barley and emmer (type of wheat), flax and sesame, vegetables - cucumbers, leeks and garlic. Lotus and papyrus collected in the racs. In the valley grew by a chicken and coconut palm tree, a pomegranate, a fig tree, a tree acacia, Sicomor, in the delta - grape vine and fruit trees. However, the construction forest was practically not; He was delivered from Phenicia rich in cedar and oak.

Nile's waters have abounded by fish, he threatened with a child. Wild fauna was represented by lions, cheetahs, panthers, jackals, gazelles, foxes, giraffes, hippos, crocodiles, rhino; Part of the species disappeared as a result of intensive hunting and climate change. From pets held bulls, cows, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, dogs, later mules and horses; From poultry - ducks and geese, later chickens. Divorced bees.

Egypt was not rich in minerals. The main heritage of his subsoil was a variety of stone rocks (granite, basalt, diarite, alabaster, limestone, sandstone). Many metals were absent, which led to the expansion of the Egyptians in the Southern and Northeast areas: copper mines attracted them in Sinai, Nubia and Arabian Highlands - the deposits of gold and silver. Egypt and neighboring areas did not have the reserves of tin and iron, which delayed the offensive of the Bronze and Iron Age on the territory of the Nile Valley.

Ethnic composition.

The Egyptian ethnos arose as a result of the mixing of a number of Semitic and Khamita tribes. This anthropological type was distinguished by a strong physique, average height, dark-skinned skin, a zealous face with convex "black" lips, an oblong skull and black smooth hair.

HISTORY

The history of ancient Egypt is divided into the following epochs: the first (beginning of 4 thousand BC) and the second (mid-4 thousand BC) dodinal periods; Early kingdom (32-29 centners. BC); Ancient kingdom (28-23 centuries. BC); The first transition period (23-21 centuries. BC); The average kingdom (21-18 centuries. BC); The second transition period (end 18 - mid 16 centuries. BC); New kingdom (16-11 centuries BC); The third transition period (11-10 centuries. BC); Later, the kingdom (9-7 centners BC); The era of Persian domination (end of 6-4 centuries. BC).

The Nile Valley was mastered by a person else in the Paleolithic era. Parking of primitive hunters and collectors were found in Upper Egypt and in the Fayum oasis. In the era of the Upper Paleolithic (20-10 thousand BC) they settled throughout the valley. At that time, the climate was more wet and cool than now; Extensive territories around the Nile, who had a number of tributaries, covered her grass and shrubs. A large number of wild animals lived on them, the hunt for which remained the main occupation of the local tribes, which leaded a nomadic lifestyle. However, the cessation of the glacial period and significant warming led to the desertification of this area, which ended at the beginning of the Neolithic (Novocamena Century). The surrounding tribes, mainly Khamita origin, were forced to gradually retreat to the suspended strip of the Earth suitable for the Nile coast. Population growth in combination with the reduction of animals and plant resources forced hunters and collectors to look for new ways of extracting food. The presence of fertile soils, wild-growing cereals and the tearful animals contributed to the occurrence, starting from the end of 6 thousand BC, agriculture and cattle breeding.

Neolithic tribes 5 thousand BC (Merimda and El-Omar culture in Delta, Fayum and Tasy in Upper Egypt) do not yet know copper and continue to use stone weapons. They are divorced small (sometimes even large) horned cattle and are engaged in primitive agriculture, taking the first attempts to irrigate the soil; Nevertheless, hunting and fisheries continue to be the main source of their existence.

At the end of 5 - early 4 thousand BC. The Nile Valley enters into the Eneolithic Epoch (copper century). Objects from copper (beads, seaside) is already found at Badarians who lived in Upper Egypt at the end of 5 thousand BC. Badarians achieve great success in cattle breeding, turning to the breeding of cattle. The role of agriculture increases, small irrigation channels appear. However, hunting and fisheries retain their importance.

The first dynamic period

The first dynastic period (first half of 4 thousand BC). At the beginning of 4 thousand BC. A settled agricultural lifestyle becomes dominant at the Nile Valley tribes (Amratia and non-Chinese cultures). There is a significant increase in the population - the number and size of settlements increase, they are applied by the walls. The sphere of use of copper is expanding (not only for jewelry, but also for labor instruments); Gold items appear. Social differentiation is still scheduled.

The second dynastic period

The second dynastic (gersa) period (35-33 centuries. BC). In the middle of 4 thousand BC. Egypt enters during a developed copper century. This era is also called the Guerza (from the village of Herze, near which an Eneolytic settlement was excavated). The gersaits finally go to settling; The leading role in their lives is played cattle breeding and agriculture, the progress of which leads to the emergence of property inequality; The main wealth is the cattle. Agricultural community from generic transforms into the neighbor; It occurs social differentiation. A layer of "noble", formed from the military top (prototers of the tribe - leader, the strongest warriors), property elite (the most wealthy and enterprising communities), the ministers of the cult. This layer dominates the main mass of farmers and cattle breeders. The prisoners captured as a result of constant military clashes form a small category of slaves.

The urgent need to maintain and expand local irrigation systems contributed to the unification of communities into larger education. Regardless of how it happened (violent or peaceful), one of the communities inevitably occupied dominant positions in relation to the rest; It was its settlement that turned into an administrative, military and religious association center, and its elite was usurped by leading political, military and priestly functions. Gradually, the combination process led to the appearance by the end 34 V. BC. Large territorial formations - Nomov, which were the first protortments of ancient Egypt. At 33 c. BC. The increased need for the creation of the NosjiPet Irrigation system led to a tendency towards the political association of the entire Nile Valley. The result of the struggle of Nomov for the political prevalence was the emergence of two Nizhypetsky states with the capital in Buto and Verkhnegipetsky with the capital in Nehen (Jeeneronpol). The leading cult in Nizhny Egypt was the cult of set, and in the Upper Egypt - the cult of the mountain.

Early kingdom

Early kingdom (32-29 centuries. BC): "Zero", I and II of the dynasty. Nizhnegipetsky and Verkhnegipetsky kingdom led permanent wars For control over border areas. Military confrontation ended with the defeat of Lower Egypt by the Upper Egyptian king of Narmer OK. 3200 BC and the creation of a single Egyptian power. Narmer combined the Red Crown of the lower and white crown of the Upper Egypt. Dynasty of Narmer ("Zero") became the first ruling general-beneficial dynasty. It was replaced by the I dynasty that took place from the Upper Egyptian city of Tin (near Abidos). Her two-permarter of mine (Mountain-Fighter) for the purpose of cohesion of the state founded the new capital on the border of the Lower and Upper Egypt - Memphis. The rule I of the dynasty became a period of relative domestic stability, which allowed a number of successful campaigns from Egypt to one of its representatives from Egypt. Gradually was established control over the Sinai P-B. However, the separatist movement in Nizhny Egypt intensified the Board of the II of the dynasty. In an effort to suppress him, the kings were resorted to both repression (the bloody suppression of the uprising in the Delta of the King Hashemumi) and to the policy of reconciliation (some kings demonstratively take the name of the set or at the same time set and mountain). Apparently, by the end of the rule of the second dynasty, the Nizhny Egypt was finally conquered.

Ancient kingdom

Ancient kingdom (28-13 centuries. BC): III-VI dynasty. Formed to 28 V. BC. The social system was a clear pyramid, at the top of which the king was standing, who had absolute authorities (legislative, executive, judicial) and considered by God (the embodiment of God, the son of God RA). He was the autocratic Lord of Egypt, the Supreme Owner of the Earth and everything that was inhabited and grown. The material basis of the monarchical authority was the extensive royal economy ("King House"), which consisted of huge places scattered throughout the Nile Valley. His name itself was sacred, and it was forbidden to pronounce; Therefore, he was called Pharaoh - "Per-O" ("Great House").

Below Pharaoh was an aristocracy, the duty of which was charged to serve the Pharaoh-God (courtesy), to help him manage Egypt and fulfill his will (officials), to read His relatives-Consistent plants (priests). As a rule, representatives of nobility simultaneously performed all three functions. Belonging to the highest layer was hereditary. As part of the nobility, two main groups are allocated - the capital's sanovaya aristocracy and rulers of Nomov (nomarhi) - between which there was no clear face: often nomarhi occupied positions in the central office, and the highest officials managed individual regions. Velmazbi had large land possessions, consisting of a "personal house" (land and property transmitted by inheritance or acquired), and the conditional holding provided by Pharaoh at the time of the fulfillment of these positions. As priests, they received control over extensive temple economies. The estates belonging to the venores and temples were taxed and obligations; In rare cases, Pharaoh for special merit freed from them a dignitary or temple.

The lower layer consisted of peasants-communists (Nisutu, Kheniusha) and places of interest (Merid, Hemuu). Nisutiu was sitting on Earth, possessed labor tools and personal property, paid taxes and carried the duties in favor of the state. Hemuu performed various work in the royal, temple or private farms, using the tools of labor and raw materials from the Lord of the Yard and getting clothes and food for their work; lived in "villages" in the estates. Hemuu was organized in the working detachments, whose leaders were considered civil servants. The workers of the temple and private farms were also used to fulfill state duties (construction of pyramids, irrigation facilities, roads, cargo transportation, etc.). The position of Hemuu was not very different from the position of the lowest social category of the Egyptian society - slaves (tank), which were mainly of prisoners of war (the state negatively referred to the slavery of the indigenous Egyptians). During this period, they have not yet formed a significant social layer, and their role in the economy and society was modest.

The main function of the ancient Egyptian state was to mobilize the Company's forces to fulfill important economic, political or religious tasks (maintaining the irrigation system, the organization of military campaigns, the construction of religious structures), which led to the emergence of a system of careful accounting and distribution of all labor and material resources. It was carried out in the jurisdiction of a numerous and branched state apparatus, which operated on three levels - central, nomov and local. The Central Administration was headed by the Supreme Snover (CTI), sending the activities of executive and judicial institutions; At the same time, an army was withdrawn from his reference. He was obeyed by various departments: on the supervision of the irrigation system, livestock, artisans, on the organization of public works and tax collecting, "six great yards" (judicial instances). Each of them was divided into two units - for the upper and for Lower Egypt. The Special Military Office ("House of Weapons") answered if necessary for the convening of landing militia and for the fortress system scattered throughout the country; The army consisted of detachments of Egyptian-infantry, armed with bows and arrows, and auxiliary hired detachments ("peaceful nubians"). The administration headed by nomarham copied the structure of the central one. She was subject to advice (Jajat, Kenbet), who managed community settlements; They watched local irrigation systems and peaked the court.

On the Board of the III of the Dynasty (28 V. BC), founded by Pharaoh Joser, there is an increase in the state centralization and strengthening the royal power: a single irrigation system is created, the bureaucratic apparatus is being created, an active foreign policy is being expanded, a special cult of Pharaoh-God is established (gigantic Tombs - pyramids). Pharaohs seek to stand over the aristocracy and make it completely dependent. First of all, they are trying to establish control over a nomed control, eliminating the hereditary power of nomarhov. However, it is possible to achieve this only to the IV dynasty (28-27 centuries BC), in which pharaoh absolutism reaches its peak, especially on the Board of Snofra, Houfra (Heops), Jedfra, Hafra (Hefren) and Mencaura (Micheryina): The practice of appointing nomarhov central authorities and their constant movement from Nom, leading positions in the central office are in the hands of representatives of the reign house. The cult of Pharaoh acquires an exceptional nature; Huge labor and material resources are mobiliated for the construction of giant pyramids. In foreign policy aggressiveness increases; The three main directions are determined - southern (Nubia), Northeast (Sinai, Palestine) and Western (Libya). As a rule, hiking are robbed in nature (capture of prisoners and minerals); At the same time, Egypt seeks to establish systematic control over a number of territories for their economic development (Sinai, Nubia).

The construction of the pyramids and foreign policy expansion lead to overvoltage of the forces of Egyptian society and to the political crisis, as a result of which the IV dynasty replaces V (26-15 centuries. BC); Her founder is Pharaoh Urikaf. Its representatives reduce the scale of the construction of the pyramids and make concessions of the metropolitan nobility (higher positions cease to be a monopoly of the reigning house). In order to cohesive the Company, the cult of the RA god is given a national nature (the concept of the origin of the pharaohs from RA) is approved. The stabilization of the internal political situation allows you to resume active foreign policy: the robberies continue to Asia and Libya, in the south of the Egyptians reach the third threshold, the expeditions are organized to the south of the Red Sea (Punt) and in the chief.

The first pharaohs of the dynasty (25 - mid 23 c. BC) - Aunt, PiOi I, Merenra, Popi II, continue to foreign policy aggression. However, the power of nomotion is increasing, primarily in Upper Egypt; Nararch posts again become hereditary; Representatives of a number of nomedic births occupy high posts in the central office of management and enter into relatives with ruling home (Nomarghi Tina). Nomarhov buried no time of the royal assfilms, but in Nakh; Their tombs are becoming more luxurious. The central government gradually weakens, its economic possibilities are reduced: the practice of immunity complaints is applied, nomarhi gradually establish control over the royal farms. With the last pharaohs of the VI dynasty, the royal power comes in full decline. The political crisis of the mid 23 c. BC. leads to its fall and actual decay of the state for independent principalities.

The first transition period

The first transition period (mid 23 - mid 21 centuries): VII-X dynasty. At the rule of the VII and VIII dynasties, the power of the Memphis pharaoh was only nominal; Political anarchy reigned in Egypt. The loss of state unity was the cause of the collapse of the Obgazippet irrigation system, which caused the economic crisis and massive hunger; The northern provinces were periodically subjected to the raids of Asian nomads and Libyans. The inability of numbers on their own forces to cope with economic difficulties has strengthened the backward trend. The first contender for the role of "collector" of the Egyptian lands was Herakleopol, one of the largest cities in the north of Upper Egypt. His rulers managed to subordinate to the Delta and the Upper Egyptian region of Tina, reflect the invasion of nomads and strengthen the northern borders; Starting from Ahto (Chiet), they claimed the title of kings of all Egypt (IX-X dynasty). However, in its struggle for the union of Egypt, the, the Herculeople's kingdom met the opponent in the person of the Fan-founding kingdom formed in the south, who controlled the Nile Valley from Abidos to the 1st threshold. Their confrontation ended at the end of the XXI century. BC. Five victory with Pharaoh Mentukhotpee, who founded the XI dynasty. The integrity of the Egyptian state was restored.

Middle kingdom

The average kingdom (2005-1715 BC): XI-XIII dynasty. The restoration of a strong centralized state made it possible to restore a single irrigation system, to ensure certain economic progress (more perfect plow, the new breed of fine-mounted sheep, the first bronze guns, the leste glass), resume the interrupted trading contacts and begin the development of wetlands in the delta and in the Fayum Basin, which turned In the Fayum oasis. The period of the greatest heyday of the Middle Kingdom was the Board of the XII dynasty (1963-1789 BC). Her founder Amemenchet I (1963-1943 BC) suffered the capital from FIV to the city of Yttaui, built on the border of the Lower and Upper Egypt ("connecting two countries"), finally approved by state unity. However, in its centralization policy, Amelessa I and its coming successors SENUSERT I, AMEMEMHET II, \u200b\u200bSENUSERT II and SENUSERT III were confronted with counteracting the hereditary nominity, significantly intensified in the first transition period; She closed closely with provincial priesthood and controlled local military units and state ownership. Pharaohs recovered the former control apparatus, but the economic base of their power was limited: in terms of its size, the royal economy of the Middle Kingdom significantly inferior to the royal economy of the Epoch of the III-VI dynasties. In its struggle with narchami, the XII dynasty found a support in the middle layers ("small"), actively attracting their representatives to the civil service (of which, for example, the Tsarist Guard was completed - "accompanying rulers") and rewarding their land, slaves and property. With the support of the "small" amemenhetu III (1843-1798 BC) managed to break the power of the aristocracy, eliminating the hereditary power in Nakh; The symbol of a celebration over provincial separatism was built at the entrance to the Fayum oasis Maze - the royal clocky temple, in which the statues of nome gods were collected.

Pharaohs of the XII dynasty resumed an active foreign policy of the rulers of the ancient kingdom. Amenheet I and Senusertime I invaded Nubia several times; She was finally conquered by Senuser III, who made the southern border of Egypt of the Fortress of Seven and Kumma at the 2nd threshold of the Nile. Periodically campaigns to Libya and Asia. Sinai P-in again became the Egyptian province; In Egypt, South Palestine and part of the chickens were dependent on Egypt.

The social system of the Middle Kingdom was different from the previous period of greater mobility and a special role of medium-sized layers: the state facilitated the transition from some floors of the social staircase to others. The composition of the elite has significantly changed: near the hereditary metropolitan and nomic aristocracy, an influential layer of servilated knew was established. The conditional holding of the land for the service was widely spread. Middle estates began to play a leading role in the economy. The number of small landowners has increased. The labor population ("royal people") was the object of government accounting and labor regulation policies: upon reaching a certain age, all the "royal people" were rewriting, were distributed by profession (farmers, artisans, warriors, etc.) and were sent to work as in Tsarist and temple estates and in the estate of large and medium-sized officials. The number of slaves increased, the main source of which remained wars. They were used mainly in medium-sized businesses, the owners of which usually won little from the centralized distribution of labor resources.

Despite the strengthening of the royal power at the XII dynasty, social and political tensions remain in the Egyptian society. Acute contradictions exist inside the elite, between the center and the provinces, the dissatisfaction of the "royal people" is deepened; The aristocracy periodically organizes conspiracies against Pharaohs (Amemenchi I and Amenhet II killed in the hands of the conspirators), nomarhi raise the uprisings (with Amenhem I, Senuserte I, Senuserte II), firm political cheek. The first symptoms of weakening the central authorities are found already under the last ruler of the XII dynasty (Amenhemhet IV and the Queen of Nephlabek). This process is enhanced at the XIII dynasty, when the throne becomes a toy in the hands of competing groups for nobility; Nevertheless, the decay of the state does not occur, the administrative apparatus continues to function, Egypt holds Nubia under its control. Political instability and sharply worsening economic situation, however, lead approx. 1715 BC To the social explosion - the uprising of the grounds: the rebels captured and destroyed the capital, killed Pharaoh, expropriated the state grain reserves, destroyed applying lists and inventories, exposed to the prosecution of officials and judges. This movement, in the end, depressed, caused a fatal blow to the average kingdom.

The second transition period

The second transition period (1715 is approx. 1554 BC): XIV-XVI dynasty.After the fall of the XIII dynasty, Egypt disintegrates on independent nomes. Applying to the title of the NosjiPet XIV dynasty, affirmed in the CSO, actually controls only a part of the delta. OK. 1675 BC Egypt invaded Gixos, created in the middle of the XVIII century. BC. An extensive tribal union on the territory of Palestine and North Arabia, and expose him to terrible defeat. They capture the Delta and make their capital the Avaris fortress in the eastern part of it; Their success contributed to the fact that they, unlike the Egyptians, were used in military business horses. Giksos leaders take Pharaoh's title (XV-XVI dynasty). However, they cannot achieve the real subordination of the entire Nile Valley; Under their authority, only Lower Egypt is actually located. Although part of the Upper Egyptian nomarhov and recognizes the dominacy of gixos, this dependence remains rather formal, and it is limited to the payment of Dani. In the south of the Upper Egypt, an independent Fan Principality is formed. Only at the beginning of the XVII century. BC. Giksos Pharaoh Hanana manages to establish control over all the upper Egypt. But after his death, the phiva again acquire independence, and the FVAN governments proclaim themselves by Pharaohs (XVII dynasty). Her last representative - Kamses - subordinates the rest of the Upper Egyptian nomes and, despite the opposition of the nobility, begins with the support of ordinary warriors the struggle for the expulsion of gixos. He makes a successful campaign in the Delta and forces them to retreat to the accident. The brother and heir to Kmesa Yahmm I seek the decisive fracture in the war: he wins several victories and captures after a three-year siege of the Avaris. The expulsion of Giksosov ends with the tick of the fortress Sharukhen in South Palestine OK. 1554 BC

New kingdom

New kingdom (approx. 1554 - approx. 1075 BC): XVIII-XX dynasty.

The transformation of Egypt into the world power.

Yahmm I, the founder of the XVIII dynasty, strengthened his power, suppressing an uprising in the southern nose, and restored the Egyptian state within the middle kingdom, having campaigning in Nubia and moved the southern border to the 2nd threshold.

At the first pharaohs of the XVIII dynasty (approx. 1554-1306 BC) a number of military reforms were held: under the influence of the Gixos of the Egyptians created new Rod troops - light battle chariots (with two horses, fault and archer); was built navy; More than more perfect species weapons (massive straight and lightweight sick-shaped swings, powerful composite puff onions, arrow with copper lugs, plate shell); A new system of recruiting army was introduced (one warrior from ten men); The share of mercenaries-aliens increased. These reforms became the basis of the territorial expansion carried out in unprecedented-scale.

The beginning of an active policy of external aggression was putting the third pharaoh of the XVIII Dynasty Tutmos I (Gehutymes), which ruled in the second half of the 16th century. BC. Tutamum I expanded the territory of Egypt to the 3rd threshold. He also made a successful campaign in Syria, reaching the Euphrate, where she won the troops of Mitatni, a strong state in the north of Mesopotamia. Nevertheless, Syria and Palestine did not enter the Egyptian kingdom; With the support of Mittanians, Syrian and Palestinian rulers have formed an anti-seppe coalition led by Prince Kadesh. The son and heir to Tutmos I Tutmos II severely suppressed the uprising in Nubia and led a stubborn struggle with Asian nomads. In the rule of his widow Hatshepsut (1490-1469 BC) there was a temporary refusal of the conquesting policy. However, with the weighing for the throne of Tutmos III (1469-1436 BC), the foreign policy aggression of Egypt reached its climax. In 1468 BC. Tutmmos III invaded Syria and Palestine, defeated the united army of local princes from Megiddo and after the seven-month siege seized the city. From 1467 to 1448 BC He made more than fifteen trips to these lands. In 1457 BC Pharaoh crossed the Euphrates and ruined a number of Mitrani fortresses, in 1455 BC. inflicted a new defeat by Mitanians. The campaign ended in 1448 BC. taking kadesh; The Palestinian Syrian coalition ceased to exist. Mitanni recognized the sphere of influence of Egypt Syria, Fihood and Palestine. The North border of the Egyptian Power became Carhemish in Eufrat. At the same time, as a result of successful struggle with Ethiopian tribes, Tutmos III pushed the southern border until the 4th threshold. The conquered lands were delivered under the management of the "Chief of Northern countries" and "Chief of Southern countries"; Control over them was provided by Egyptian garrisons. Babylon, Assyria, the Hittite state, fearing the Egyptian power, sent the rich gifts to Tahmes, which he considered tribute.

His son and the successor Amenhotep II most of his reign was engaged in the suppression of the uprisings of the Syrian and Palestinian rulers; Seven of them, he betrayed the cruel execution, more than one hundred thousand people were sold into slavery. His son Tutmos IV made several punitive expeditions to Palestine and Syria and severely punished the rebels of Nubi residents. To strengthen its positions in the Eastern Mediterranean, he took a course for rapprochement from Mitanni and married the Mitannaya Tsarevna. With his heir to Amenhotep, III, Egypt's power over Syria and Palestine finally approved; Attempting by Hettites provoke a rebellion of some Syrian princes ended in complete failure. The new Nubian uprising was easily suppressed. Egypt became the most powerful power of anterior Asia.

Third transitional period

The third transition period (1075-945 BC): XXI dynasty. The separation of Egypt led to the decay of a single royal economy, the foundation of state centralization. Tsarist estates in Nakhov turn out to be in the hands of local nobility and priesthood. Conditional holdings of officials become their property. Egypt turns into an isna of rivalry of regional grouping of aristocracy. Everywhere, especially in the south, the power of temples is increasing. There is no longer there is a force capable of consolidating the resources of the Company for active foreign Policy. Egypt ceases to be the Great Power of Eastern Mediterranean and loses the last remnants of their alien possessions; Weakens control even over a strongly egyptized Nubia. The mass penetration of Libyans to Nizhny Egypt continues: they will settle there with whole tribes, form the backbone of the Egyptian army, their leaders increasingly occupy posts of Narhov and enter into related relations with local secular and spiritual.

Later kingdom

Later, the kingdom (945-525 BC): XXII-XXVI dynasty. Libyan Egypt (945-712 BC): XXII-XXIV dynasty.Livization of Lower Egypt is naturally completed by the weird in 945 BC. At the throne of the representative of the Libyan aristocracy Sheshonka I, the XXII XXII (Libyan) dynasty (945-722 BC). He legitimizes his power, marrying one son on the daughter of the last Pharaoh of the XXI dynasty, and subordinates the Upper Egypt, making another son by the Supreme Priest of Amon in the philas. The capital is transferred to the boobast in the southeastern part of the delta. Sheshonk I returns to the aggressive foreign policy rate of the pharaohs of the new kingdom: approx. 930 BC He interferes with the struggle of the Jewish and Israeli kingdoms on the side of the latter, invades Palestine and captures Jerusalem. He also manages to restore control over Nubia. Significant resources that have been at the disposal of the royal power, allow Hasonka I and its closest successors to deploy palace and temple construction. XXII dynasty relies primarily on the Libyan army; In addition, its representatives seek to acquire support for prison, primarily in the north, generously granting the temples of land, movable and immovable property, slaves, various privileges and committing rich sacrifices.

In IX century BC. It began to weaken the authorities of the Libyan Pharaohs. Libyan to know so strengthened its position that no longer needed a patronage from the center. Nizhny Egypt actually collapsed into a variety of small half-pointed possessions led by Libyan nomarchs and military leaders; This was facilitated by rivalry within the ruling dynasty, whose representatives created the strongest principalities (Herakleopol, Memphis, Tanisskoe). Power over the Upper Egypt remained purely formal. The narrowing of the material capabilities of the pharaohs of the XXII dynasty led to their inability to prevent Assyrian aggression in Syria and to provide effective assistance to his chief ally - the Damascus Kingdom; In 840 BC It was defeated. In 808 BC The ruler of Tanis refused to recognize the supremacy of the XXII dynasty and took the title of Pharaoh, founding the XXIII dynasty (808-730 BC). In the VIII century BC. The kings of the XXII dynasty really controlled only the bubast area.

In the middle of the VIII century. BC. Egypt collided with a new strong enemy - the sore kingdom (Kush), which arose on the territory of Nubia and spread its power from the 6th to the 1st Nile threshold. A coschite influence in Upper Egypt has increased significantly at the Kasht Tsar, who achieved the construction of his daughter in the San Supreme Priestess ("Amon's wife") in the philas. His son and the successor of PIIIs, with the support of FVAN, subjugate the southern regions of Egypt. Kushytskaya danger prompted the Libyan princes of the North to organize a coalition led by the Tefnis, the ruler of Sais and Ision in Western Delta. The Tefnach has established control over the West of the Lower and North of the Upper Egypt and prompted the border Gueropol Principality in the central part of the country. But at 730 BC. Pianhi defeated the forces of Libyans in the battles at Five and Gerakleopol, captured Hermopol, won a decisive victory near Memphis and took this city. Nizhnegipetsky provinces, including the Babast Pharaoh Osorakon and the Tefnis itself, had to recognize the power of the Half King.

The Kushytsky dominion in the northern regions of Egypt was, however, fragile: after his victory, Pianhi returned to the attack, not leaving the Kushyt garrisons in the Nizhnegipet cities. K 722 BC Delta again turned out to be in the hands of the Tefnis, who accepted the title of Pharaoh (722-718 BC) and founded the XXIV dynasty; His son Bonranranf (Bokchoris) (718-712 BC), subjugated the central regions of the country. The Tefna and Bacinranf rest over ordinary Libyans, as well as the middle and lower layers of the Egyptian population. In an effort to strengthen the army and expand the tax base, they fought with debt slavery and prevented the growth of major land tenure (laws against luxury, about the responsibility of debtors for their duty only by their property, to limit the loan interest, to prohibit the root of the indigenous Egyptians). This policy pushed the priesthood and aristocracy dynasty from the XXIV, who preferred to support Kushitov. In 712 BC Sabacan's assault king defeated Bainranfa and mastered Delta; Buckhenranf was captured and burned. The United Kushite-Egyptian kingdom was formed.

Kushitsky Egypt and Assyrian conquest

Kushitsky Egypt and Assyrian conquest (712-655 BC): XXV dynasty. Shabaka (712-697 BC) became the founder of XXV (Ethiopian) dynasty (712-664 BC). He took the course for a close alliance with the priesthood. He moved his residence from attacks to Memphis, the center of Cult Ptah, and his children introduced to the highest FVAN Vestevia. However, at the end of the 8th century. BC. Increased threat from Assyria, which in 722 BC. destroyed the Israeli kingdom. In 701 BC Assyrian king Sinaiherib invaded Judea; Shabaka tried to assist the Jewish king of Ozekia, but the Egyptian army was defeated during the Altak; The sons of Pharaoh were captured, and Ezekias conquered conquerors. With the second successor to Takhark Shabaki (689-664 BC), Egypt became the direct object of Assyrian aggression. Takharka encouraged the Palestinian and Phoenician Tsarkov to postpone from Assyria. In response to the Assyrian king Asarkhaddon in 674 BC, pre-providing the loyalty of the Arabian tribes, made a trip to Egypt, but Takharc managed to prevent him from penetrating the country. In 671 BC. Asarhaddon invaded Egypt again, broke the resistance of Takharkka, took and plundered Memphis. Assyrians captured the country up to Phi and turned it into the province; They posted their garrisons in the cities, put a big tribute and put the cult of the god Ashura; At the same time, the Northern Libyan Dinas, who recognized the power of Assyria, retained their possessions. Asarhaddon accepted the title of King Egypt and Kush.

Soon Takhark, gathering significant forces in the south, expelled the Assyrian detachments from Egypt and freed Memphis; However, Libyan princes did not support him. Asarhaddon moved his troops to Egypt and defeated the Kushy Army on the Palestinian border. Takharka ran pursued by Assyrians first in the cuts, and then to Nubia. Egypt was divided into twenty districts led by narchami from the local nobility under the control of the Assyrian military and civil administration.

Heavy Assyrian oppression caused discontent of various sections of the Egyptian society. In 667 BC. A group of northern princes under the leadership of Nekho, the ruler of Saa and Memphis was a branched conspiracy against the conquerors. Nehho tried to establish contacts with Takharkka, but his deaths were intercepted by the Assyrians. Brutal repressions collapsed on rebellious cities, but the new Assyrian king Ashurbanapal pardoned the leaders of the conspiracy; He returned her own possession, and his son Psammetich appointed an attribute ruler in South Delta. This allowed the Assyrians to strengthen their positions in the Libyan Nominal Wednesday.

After the death of Takharkka in 664 BC His successor Tanutamon decided to restore Egypt again. In 663 BC. With the support of the population and especially priesthood, he easily mastered the top Egypt, and then took Memphis. But he failed to subjugate the northern princes, which in the overwhelming majority are the faithful of Assyria. Ashurbanipal fast march moved to Egypt. Tanutamon could not organize resistance and fled to Nubia. Assyrians subjected to terrible defeat of the hair, the main ally of the Kushitov. After some time, Tanutamon returned control over the southern regions of the Upper Egypt and restored the income, which, however, have lost its former political, religious and cultural significance forever.

Sasian Egypt

Sasian Egypt (655-525 BC): XXVI dynasty. In 664 BC. The ruler of Sais, the largest economic center of the delta, becomes the son of the neho psammet. Having significant material resources, it has formed a strong hired army from the Carians and Maja Greeks and at the beginning of the 650s to AD. united under his authority Nizhny Egypt, and in 656-655 BC Subduced the Upper Egypt and made his daughter by the Supreme Priestess of Amon in the philas. Restoring state unity, Psammetich I (664-610 BC) expelled the Assyrian garrisons from the country and proclaimed himself by Pharaoh, founding XXVI (Sasian) dynasty (655-525 BC). His support was the Northern Property, which helped him to suppress the separatism of the Libyan Dinast. The patronage of Pharaoh to the mercenaries, which he provided land for the settlement, exacerbated his relationship with the warriors of Libyan-Egyptian origin. He deprived them of a number of privileges than provoked a series of rebels and even the departure of the army in Nubia.

Psammetich I conducted a course on the revival of ancient customs and lifestyle. At the same time, he encouraged trade with other countries and supported ingenic merchants, primarily the Greks to which he allowed to establish a colony in Western Delta. In its foreign policy, Pharaoh in 650-630 BC. Focused on a union with the Babylonian kingdom and Lydia, seeking to prevent the restoration of Assyrian domination. However, from 620s BC. He began to maintain a rapidly weak Assyria, with difficulty holding back on the Natius of the Babylonian-Midi Coalition. True, he failed to help her during the invasion of the front Asia of the Scythian nomads, from which he himself was forced to pay off. Great care of Psammetih I showed a strengthening of Egypt's borders, especially the northeastern, where he built a number of strong fortresses.

After the death of Yakhmos II in 526 BC The throne took his son Psammetih III (526-525 BC). A few months later, the Persian King Cammbiz 529-522 BC) invaded Egypt and thanks to the treason of the commander of the Greek mercenaries Fans and some Egyptian military leaders won 525 BC Decisive victory over Pesammetichi III with peluia. The army retreated to Memphis, but the commander of the Egyptian fleet flushed without a fight with the Persons of SAS and allowed the enemy squadron to penetrate the delta, which led to the surrender of the Egyptian troops and the fall of Memphis; Pharaoh, together with his family, was captured. The whole country until the 1st threshold was ruled by Persians. The uprising that flashed in Egypt in 524 BC. After the failure of Cambiza attempts to conquer Kiren and Nubia, it was brutally suppressed: the Persian king executed Psammetichi III and destroyed the temples, whose priests supported the rebels.

Egypt in the era of achemenidov

Egypt in the Ahemenide era (525-332 BC): XXVII-XXX dynasty. The period of the first Persian dominion (525-404 BC): XXVII (Persian) dynasty. In the first decades of the Persian rule (in Cambiss and Daria I), Egypt occupied a privileged position in the composition of the powers of the achemenides. Persian Persons over Egypt was the character of personal union: in August 525 BC Cambis accepted Pharaoh's title; Agemenides became the XXVII Dynasty of Egypt. The Persian kings were crowned with the Egyptian crown and used the traditional Egyptian dating of boards. Persians allowed the Egyptians to preserve their religion and their customs. Although the country's management was concentrated in the hands of the Persian Satrap with the Residence in Memphis, and the Persian garrisons were located in the main cities, a number of top posts remained behind the Egyptians. Cambiss reimbursed the temples of the damage caused by the Persians during the conquest. Darius I (522-486 BC) carried out intensive temple construction; With it, the conservation of the channel between the Mediterranean and the Red Seas was completed. Such a policy was in many ways dictated by the strategic and economic value of Egypt for Persians: he was one of the most profitable satrapy - the sum of the annual filings received from it was seven hundred silver talents.

Until the middle of the 480s to AD. Egypt remained loyal, except for the separatist speech of the ARIAND Satrapa during the period of dynastic internecake in Persia in 522-521 BC. However, increasing taxes at the end of the reign of Darius I and the hijacking of Egyptian artisans to Persia to the construction of tsarist palaces in Suza and Persepole were summoned in October 486 BC. The mass uprising, which is a new Persian king of Xerks (486-465 BC) managed to suppress only in January 484 BC. Xerxes were severely dealt with the rebels and radically changed politics towards Egypt: he did not accept the title of Pharaoh, thereby annuling personal Ulya, conducted widespread temple property confiscations, refused to practice the appointment of Egyptians to administrative posts. It provoked the growth of antiperside sentiment.

In 461 BC One of the Libyan Princes of Western Delta Inar raised the rebellion against the Persian dominion; He was assisted by the Greeks headed with the Persians, headed by Athenians. The combined Greek-Egyptian army won 459 BC. The victory over Persians in Pephinsis, took Memphis and took possession of the most part of the Nile Valley. But in 455 BC. In Egypt, a three hundred dollar Persian army was invaded under the command of megabiz, supported by a strong fleet (three hundred ships), and defeated allies to the forces. Greek and Egyptian detachments occupied defense on. Austice in Delta, but megabizu managed in June 454 BC. break into the island and defeat them; The defeated Athenian squador who arrived for the rescue was destroyed in the Mengest Sleeve Nile. The remnants of Athenians fled to Kyrenu. Inar was captured and devoted to the painful execution.

The beginning in the second half of the V c. BC. The process of weakening the powers of the achemenide was accompanied by the strengthening of the separatist movement in Egypt. 405 BC Rebellious AMIRTA, Vlaboreel Sais. He won a few victories over the Persians and established control over Delta. Because of the intercourse war broke out in Persia between the king of Arterkservs II and his brother, Kirome, Persians could not direct major forces to suppress the uprising, and the Amimites to the beginning of the V c. BC. Released all Egypt.

The period of independence of Egypt

Egypt's independence period (405-342 BC): XXVIII-XXX dynasty. Amirtei (405-398 BC), although he founded the XXVIII (Saisian) dynasty, turned out to be the only representative. The XXIX dynasty came to replace it (398-380 BC), which originated from Mendez in the Eastern Delta. After saturated palace coup The period of the Vsevlista temple and secular nobility (398-393 BC), the throne captured Acoris (393-380 BC), in which the internal and external position of Egypt has occurred. Acoris created a defensive line in the northeastern border, joined the Anti-Pisid Union with Kireni, Barka, Pisidia and Cyprus and distributed his influence on Palestine and Fianch. In 385-382 BC He successfully reflected the Persian invasion.

In 380 BC. The throne usurped the non-neuropheff (nectaneb) from Seven in Eastern Delta, founded XXX dynasty (380-342 BC). Nehtheneb I (380-363 BC) managed in 373 BC. prevent a new trick attempt to return control over Egypt; He was helped by the heroic defense of Pelusia, the progress of the Persian commander and the spill of the Nile. Understanding the limitations of their military opportunities, he concluded an union agreement with the most powerful Greek states - Athens and Sparta. In the internal policy, Nehtheneb i in every way patronized priesthood: he generously gave the temples, provided them with tax breaks, attracted priests to the decision of public affairs and did not regret the temple construction. His son and the heir of TAh (363-361 BC) refused to find a clock course of his father. Next to the means for conducting an active foreign policy, he forced the temples to provide him with a large loan, causing a sharp discontent with religious circles. He also raised the old and introduced new emergency taxes and forced all the population to give all gold and silver in the treasury in the offset of future filters. This allowed him to collect a huge army (eighty thousand Egyptians and eleven thousand Greek mercenaries). Taking advantage of the insurgency of low-immigory satrapists against the Persian Tsar of Artaxerks II, TAH invaded Fianch and Syria, but the rebellion broke out in Egypt, whose success contributed to the hostility of various social layers to the politics of Pharaoh and the support of Spartans; The new king was proclaimed by his relative Nechtoreb (Nektaneb II); Tahu had to flee to the courtyard of the Persian king.

Nehtorsheb (361-342 BC) completely broke with the course of its predecessor: he recalled the Egyptian army from Syria and began to patronize pristenses in every way (construction of temples in all parts of the country, rich gifts and sacrifices). With it, a military weakening of Egypt occurred, which facilitated the Persian aggression. The campaign of Persians in 350 BC It was not broken due to the resistance of the Egyptians, but because of the inept actions of the conductors during the transition of the army through the desert and due to the spill of the Nile. 345 BC Nehtorheb sent troops to the aid of Sidon's parsheel, but mercenaries switched to the side of the enemy. Winter 343/342 BC Persian king Artaxerxes III invaded Egypt. Pharaoh focused under the pelusing of significant forces (sixty thousand Egyptians and forty thousands of Libyan and Greek mercenaries), but the Persian fleet managed to break through in the delta and found himself in the rear in Nehtchorchyb; Pharaoh had to retreat to Memphis. In the army, the distribution between the Egyptian warriors and mercenaries was aggravated; The Greeks began to move on the side of the Persians and hand over the most important fortresses. In this situation, nonHTORHEBEB, not allowing a single battle, fled to the south; By the end of 342 BC Artaxerxes III mastered the lower and part of the Upper Egypt; Pharaoh kept only a few southern regions.

Second period of Persian rule

The second period of Persian dominion (342-332 BC). The restoration of Persian domination in Egypt was accompanied by cruel repression against the local population: the Persians destroyed a number of cities, confiscated a significant part of the temple treasures, were abused of religious shrines. After the death of Nechtskoreb in 341 BC They subjugated the southern part of Egypt, but their power turned out to be very fragile. Already approx. 337 BC Some Hubbash raised the rebellion, seized Memphis, expelled the Persians and took the title of Pharaoh. Although at 335 BC. The new Persian king Darius III restored power over Egypt, after three years, Persian dominion finally collapsed as soon as a new conqueror - Alexander Macedonsky - approached the shores of the Nile. From the end 332 BC Egypt became part of the global Macedonian power. The Hellenistic period of his history began.

Culture.

Through thousands of years, ancient Egyptian culture was distinguished by relative closure and self-sufficiency, was little susceptible to external influences. She was peculiar to deep conservatism and loyalty to ancient times established by the principles; New trends have invariably encountered strong resistance. For its basis, she embodied the fear of a person in front of uncontrollable natural elements and the worship of the Pharaoh's authority as the organizer and the guardian of the world order. The leading way to Egyptian culture was the image of the Great River - Nile - and its leading idea is an idea of \u200b\u200beternity. The concept of frozen time and frozen space was expressed in its perfect form in the most famous monuments of the Egyptian genius - pyramids.

Religion.

Egyptian religion is difficult to state in a systematic form, because its essence is not concluded in theology, but in a cult. It is extremely varied; Theology could not have a decisive unifying effect on it.

Folk beliefs and cult existed long before the emergence of the state, their traces are found in 6-4 thousand. BC. For the early form of Egyptian religion, the deification of the surrounding world and all its elements (trees, animals, dwellings, nature forces, etc.) and a special vitality of the animal cult. Initially, the Egyptians read the animals themselves, endowing them with magical properties: the cult of haastres and cats were common, the crocodile and hippopotam were worshiped in separate areas. Later, the animals began to see the embodiment of certain gods: Black Bull with white spots personified the god fertility of APIS (Memphis), the crocodile - the god of water and the spill of Nile Sebeki (Fayum), Ibis - God of wisdom Tota (Hermopol), Lioness - the goddess of war and The scorching sun Sekhmet (Memphis), the cat is the goddess of joy and fun Bast (Bubaste), Falcon - God Hunting Mountain (Behekt), etc. Gradually Pantheon Anthropomorphized, but zoomorphic features, as a rule, persisted and coexisted with anthropomorphic: that turned from Ibis In a person with a head of Ibis, Baste from a cat in a woman with a cat head, mountains from falcon in a person with a falcon head, etc. Especially imported by bull and snake. It was believed that at the beginning, all the gods and goddesses were bulls and cows of various colors. The cult of a bull in antiquity was associated with the worship of the leader of the tribe, and after the emergence of the state, it was connected with the cult of Pharaoh: so, on a holiday in honor of the thirtie trends of his reign, Pharaoh appeared in clothing with a bull tail tied to it. The snake personified as evil (apop, the enemy of the Sun) and good (the goddess of fertility reentenute, the goddess of the Lower Egypt of the UTO).

Over time, each community has its own pantheon from local gods embodied in heavenly luminaries, stones, animals, plants, etc. Among them is highlighted by God-head of the local Pantheon, the creator of this territory and people living on it, their master and patron - solar deities Atum (heliopol) and mountains (EDF), the gods of agriculture and fertility set (Eastern Delta), Amon (phiza), min (Coptos), etc. Then there is a special cult of the burial god, the Lord of the "City of the Dead" (necropolis), - Socar in Memphis, Anubis in Sathet, Hentamenti in Abidos. Later there are neosjiPetic gods that are not related to a certain area - RA (Sun), ah (moon), NUT (Heaven), Geb (Earth), HAPP (NIL).

At the same time, some local cults extend beyond their communities: thanks to migrations and conquests, gods move after their admirers to new territories, where they are identified or associated with relational relations with local gods. As a result, divine triads are created: in the philas to the married couple of the earth and fertility of Amon and the goddess of the burials Meritshegor is added as the son of the war of the war from the neighboring city of Germont, and then Meritshegor is replaced by the goddess of the eastern part of the FVAN District Mut, and Mutta is the god of the Luna Hons from another adjacent to the pivams of the district (Fan Triad); In Memphis, God of Land Ptah merges with the burial god of the Socar, then acquires a spouse in the face of the goddess of the war to Sekhmet from the neighboring Latopol, which turns into the goddess of the sky, and her son, the God of vegetation, Nefertum, becomes their common son (Memphis Triad). The most striking example of the absorption of some of the gods by others with the accompanying usurpation of functions is Osiris, the god-patron of the city of Boujiris, who was assimilated with the Boujirissian grandfather of his grandfather, with the god Nile from the neighboring Mendez and with the Abidos God of Khentimati's burials; As a result, he became the deity of the Nile, the productive forces of nature and the afterlife; The center of his cult moved to Abidos.

At the next stage, there is a rapprochement of the NosjiPetic gods with the most influential related local gods: RA is identified with solar deities at Atumu and the mountain, Ah, with the Moonar God, Nut - with the Heavenly Divine Hutor, and Hapi - with Osiris. The cult of the Supreme God, which becomes the main deity of the capital or the hometown of the ruling dynasty is born. In parallel, the meaning of the deities of the largest centers - Memphis Ptah, Abydos Osiris, Heliopol Atuma increases.

With the top of the V dynasty that originated from Heliopole, the main Egyptian deity was proclaimed at Atum-RA, and the solar cult extends throughout the Nile Valley, although he could not suppress all local cults, especially in the central and southern provinces. The first theological concept is created, the purpose of which is to turn as much gods as possible in solar and identify them with RA. This fate has suffered the gods of the Earth and the fertility of Ptah, Maid, the gods of Nila Osiris and Khnuma. There is a half-immutical system in which different deities are the essence. different functions Or different stages of the being of one single God, mysterious and inaccessible: Ra Father - yesterday's sun, Ra-son - today's; The Divine Beetle of Heper is the morning, Ra - midday, Atum - evening, Osiris - hiding in the West (the deceased). The cycle of solar myths, connecting the act of creation with the birth of the Sun from the lotus flower or from a huge celestial cow; The sun is considered as a demiurge: the first gods of Shu (air) and the tefunut (moisture) appear as a result of the self-offspring of the Sun, swallowing his own seed, and people are from his tears. The first generations of the gods form Geleopol Enneauda (nine), which is revered in all Egypt. There is a cycle of myths about solar gods, which reflect the ideas about the change of the time of the year and day (the myth of the care and return to Egypt, the daughter of the Republic of Armenia, signing the beginning and termination of drought, the myth of the daily birth and sort of sunbirth of the goddess of the sky and others) and Fighting the Sun with Mrak and Evil (myth about the victory of the RA over the snake apop). The sanctuations of the Republic of Armenia are universally erected, around which a large number of priests concentrates.

In the era of the Middle Kingdom, the solar cult successfully conquers the Upper Egypt: Fayum Sebek turns into Sebie-Ra, FVAN AMON - in Amon-ra. The Cult of Amona acquires special values \u200b\u200bdue to the increased political and economic role of FIV. In the era of the new kingdom, he reaches his peak, which even religious reforms of Ehnaton cannot interfere. Amon-ra is considered in this period as a demiurge and as the king of the gods; The ruling pharaoh is considered his son. In the southern regions, the FVANOVO RESTROND creates a real theocratic regime.

At the same time, from the period of the Middle Kingdom, the competition of solar cults begins to draw up the cult of Osiris as a god of resurrection and dying nature and as the lord of the afterlime world; The cycle of myths about him is spreading, about his wife Iside and Son Mount (the murder of Osiris by his brother Seth, the evil god of the desert, the search and mourning of the Iside of the body of her husband, the victory of the Mountain over the network and the resurrection of their father). By the beginning of the II thousand BC. The cult of Osiris becomes the focus of all fancy beliefs. If only the late pharaoh was identified in the era of the ancient kingdom with Osiris, then in the middle kingdom - every deceased Egyptian.

Representations of the afterlife.

The afterlife of the Egyptians considered the immediate continuation of the earth. According to their conviction, a person consisted of a body (height), soul (BA), shadows (Haybet), name (Ren) and invisible twin (ka). The most ancient was the idea of \u200b\u200bka, who was born with a man, relentlessly followed him everywhere, was an integral part of his being and personality, but did not disappear with his death and could continue his life in the grave depending on the degree of body's preservation. This is the last conviction formed the basis of all the funeral rites: to protect the body from taking and preserving, it was turned into a mummy with the help of embarrassment and hid in the closed room of the tomb; Near the statues of the deceased, in which he could move in case of unforeseen destruction of mummy; Scary spells had to protect her from snakes and scorpions. Believing the fact that ka can die from hunger and thirst or leave the grave and revenge alive, the relatives were filled with the tomb of provisions, cut out products and clothes on its walls, brought funeral gifts and sacrifices and pronounced magic spells requests for the deceased all necessary. The bliss of the deceased also depended on the storage of his name (REN) in the memory of the descendants, so it was cut on the walls of the tomb; Erase the name was considered great sacred. The soul (BA) was represented as a bird or grasshopper; She was not connected with the gravestone and could freely leave the dead body, sneak on the sky and live there among the gods. Later, faith was born in the wanderings of BA on earth and under the underground kingdom; To protect it from all sorts of underground monsters, there were special prayers and spells. As for the shade (Haybet), it remained very little mention.

In Egypt, there was no single idea of \u200b\u200bthe afterlife. According to the most common ABido version, the kingdom of the dead is the Kingdom of Osiris, where a person goes after death to revive to life. There, among the fertile fields, which grown huge grain cereals, he serves as Osiris, as Pharaoh served on Earth. To facilitate his work in the tomb, starting with the middle kingdom, put the many figures of workers who, thanks to the spells written on them, could replace the deceased. The kingdom It was located in the "Fields of Earu", which the Egyptians were placed either in the unknown lands (undeveloped areas of the Nile Valley, Phenicia), or to heaven (northeastern celestial country). To get into it, you needed or twisted the River of the Dead on the ferry of the gods, or take a batter on the sky, or go through the gap in the Western Mountains.

According to the Memphis version, the kingdom of the dead - the country of sleep and darkness, managed by God Socar, was a huge grotto or a quarry located in the depths of the Libyan Desert. The Solar Heliopol tradition considered the best place for the deceased RA Ladew, in which they can avoid dangers and enjoy complete bliss, even during her everyborn travels through the underground kingdom (Duat) separated from the Nile Valley of the High Mountains.

In the era of the new kingdom, an attempt is made to systematize the doctrine of the kingdom of the dead, connecting the ABIDOS and Heliopol traditions based on the theology of Amona. Her authors refuse the idea of \u200b\u200bstaying the soul on Earth and identify the afterlime world with the underground kingdom. It consists of twelve regions-rooms, the gates of which protect the gigantic snakes; Each of them is controlled by one of the ancient burial gods (Socar, Osiris, etc.). The Supreme Lord of the whole kingdom is Amon-RA, every night on his own swallowing through Duat and bringing his inhabitants a great consolation.

Since ancient times, the Egyptians believed that the deceased could achieve everything with the help of magic (get into the kingdom of the dead, get rid of hunger and thirst), i.e. His fate does not depend on his earthly existence. But later there is an idea about the afterlife (125 chapter Dead books ): In front of the face of Osiris, squeezing on the throne, the mountains and his assistant Anubis weigh the heart of the dead on the scales balanced by the truth (by the image of the goddess of the Mat Fair), and he records the result on the boards; The righteous is rewarded with a happy life in the fields of Ear, and the sinner devours the monster of AMT (lion with a crocodile head). The righteous was recognized only the one who on Earth was submissive and patient, "who did not cradle, did not enjoy the temple property, did not rebel, did not say evil against the king."

Buried ceremony

started with mummification. The insides of the deceased was taken out and placed in special vessels (cauldron), which were passed under the protection of the gods. Instead of a heart, the stone beetle was invested. The body was rubbed in a sterine and asphalt, peelly in canvas and put in a stone or wooden coffin (sometimes in two coffins), which was covered with magic images and inscriptions. Then, accompanied by relatives, friends, priests and the Posterchers, he was transported to the West Coast of the Nile, where necropolis was usually located. The main ceremony took place in the front of the tomb or at her entry. The Mystery of Osiris was played there, during which the priests committed a rite of purification of mummy or the statue of the deceased; They killed two bulls, thighs and the hearts of which brought the deceased. Then followed the rite of opening of the mouth and eyes; Thus, the dead got the opportunity to enjoy the gifts brings him. The coffin was attributed to the interior of the tomb; The entrance to it was lit. In the foreground, a feast was arranged in which he believed, and the deceased himself.

Language and writing.

The language of the ancient Egyptians belonged to the seven-Khamita language family. In its development, he passed several stages: the ancient Egyptian (period of the ancient kingdom), the Midneeghepte (classic), Novo-Egyptian (16-8 centuries BC), demotic (8 BC - 5 century AD. ) And Coptic language (3-7 centuries. AD). It was spoken by the indigenous population of the Nile Valley, and he practically did not spread beyond its limits.

Hieroglyphs read right left. They were applied to the stone surface (carved or, less often, painted with paints), on wooden boards and sometimes on leather scrolls, as well as from the beginning of the II thousand BC. on papyrus. Papius was made from the same fibrous plant of the Nileseedives, the stems of which were cut along, put the edge to the edge along the rows of the first layer, the second layer was strolled and the second was pressed; The layers were glued to the juice of the plant itself. Papyrus was very expensive; It was used economically, often the old inscription was washed and a new (palimpside) was applied on top of it. It was written with a stick from the Kalamus stem (swamp plant) with a split end; Ink were organic origin; The main text was applied to black paint, and the beginning of the line and sometimes phrases are red. Words were not separated from each other.

The Egyptians were passionate writing lovers. They were covered with hieroglyphs internal and outer walls of tombs and temples, obeliski, steles, statues, images of gods, sarcophagi, vessels and even written devices and pea. Craft scribes highly quinged; Special schools existed for their preparation.

A time-consuming hieroglyphic letter already in the era of the ancient kingdom could not satisfy the growing economic and cultural requests of society. This contributed to the simplification of the signs and the emergence of schematic hieroglyphs. A new type of letter originated is the hieroglyphic speed (first books, and then business), which was called the cheeratical ("priest"), although it was written not only the sacred, but most of the secular texts. During the middle kingdom, the classic hieroglyphic letter was used only for the inscriptions on the stone, while the cheeratic monopolizes papyrus. The process of further reduction and simplification of signs has led to 8 V. BC. By birth, based on business rapid, demotic ("folk") writing, intended for everyday use: several signs merge into one; They finally lose the pattern; There are more than twenty simple signs that indicate individual consonants, - the germ of the alphabet; Nevertheless, the hieroglyphs remain an important component of a demotic letter. Pharaohs of the XVI dynasty made an attempt to revive old hieroglyphic writing. However, with the decline of ancient Egyptian religious cult and the disappearance of the priest caste, she was forgotten by the beginning of our era. In 2-3 centuries. AD In Egypt, an alphabetical type of writing was formed - Coptic. Coptic alphabet consisted of twenty-four letters of the classic Greek alphabet and seven letters of a demotic letter.

Literature.

Most of the monuments of Egyptian literature is lost, since Papirus, which was usually applied literary texts, was a very short-lived material.

For Egyptian literature, a strict variety of genres was characterized. It reflected the essential features of the Egyptian mentality - ideas about the absolute power of the gods and pharaoh, dependence and defenselessness of the person, the relationship of earthly life with the afterlife. She always experienced a strong influence of religion, but was never limited to theology and developed a wide variety of genres. The enrichment of its symbolic and figurative system was promoted by the use of a hieroglyphic letter and its connection with theatrical religious ideas. It practically absent is the concept of authorship, with the exception of didactic literature, which was the most respected genre.

Written Egyptian literature originated in 4 millennia BC. She carried in herself a strong folk basis (labor songs, parables, sayings, fairy tales). The earliest precedes to us monuments belong to the period of the ancient kingdom. Among them are allocated Texts of pyramids, the oldest meeting of the magical formulas and checkouts, whose roots leave even in a dotnascular era; They are permeated by the passionate desire of mortals to gain immortality. There is a biographical genre: first these are gravestone inscriptions, designed to perpetuate the name of the deceased and initially contained a simple listing of his titles, posts and sacrificial gifts, gradually (by time V-VI dynasties) are transformed into real life ways. With dynastics III - V, didactic literature presented by the genome of teaching ( PTTOVEM's teaching, preserved in the manuscript of the middle kingdom period). With the era of IV-V dynasties, the cycle of fairy tales about the pharaoh hufu and magicians is connected. The preserved routine of the Memphis temple representation speaks of the existence of a protodramatic genre. The most significant monument of the religious poetry of this era is the anthem in honor of the goddess of the sky.

The flourishing of Egyptian literature falls for the period of the Middle Kingdom. The didactic genre is widely distributed: Herculeople's teaching of his son Merikarrelated to the first transition period and Amelessa I. (XII dynasty) are real political treatises about the art of government management. Social and professional instructions are written ( Teaching Akhto. On the superiority of the teacher's profession over all others). There is a genre of political prophecy ( Prophecy Neferti). Political and journalistic literature belongs poetic Rides in Ipouser (Accessive appeal to Pharaoh about the disasters of Egypt). The autobiographical genre reaches the climax in Sinauchet's story - Highly artistic lifeoping of Welmazby began the beginning of the XII dynasty. In the field of fabulous fantastic literature, a new type of fairy tales about overseas travel has been created ( Fairy tale about shipwreck). Household tale is born ( Tale of a eloquent peasant). The genre of philosophical dialogue appears - Conversation disappointed with his soulwhere the topic of doubts sounds about the advantages of the afterlife: a person, says the soul, should enjoy every moment of his earthly existence. Even more brightly, this motive is expressed in Arfist song, the most outstanding poetic product of that time. Among the best samples of religious poetry are the hymns to God Nile Happie and Osiris. Genre of magical spells is presented Texts of sarcophagus.

The literature of the new kingdom continues the artistic traditions of the average. In large quantities, fairy tales appear, especially during the XIX-XX dynasties ( Tale of two brothers, Tale of truth and krivde, Tale of the doomed Tsarevich, Tale of the FVAN Tsar Senenener and the Giksos Tsar Compare), everyday instructions ( Meaching Amenopea, Education Ani.), the philism in honor of the kings, the new capital, etc. High level reaches love Lyrics And religious poetry with her masterpiece - anthrone aton. Historiography (Annals of Tutamos III) and epic poetry are born ( Song of the Cadisha Battle). All Magic Spells known from previous epochs are collected in the famous Book dead, a peculiar guide to the afterlime world.

From the late kingdom, fantastic fairy tales are preserved (a fabulous cycle about Zhersmace), instructions ( The teachings of Angheschonka), epic poem about Pethabasta; Religious literature presented Book about sfall (a list of conspiracies, with the help of which Isis revived Osiris), Book about the passage of eternity, Book about the reprimion of the apota and Post songs of Isis and Oil (for mysteries). During this period, various types of historical prose are developing: political chronicles ( Stela Pianhi, Chronicle of Osorcon., Demotic chronicle), Family Chronicle ( Tale of Peteice III), travel reports ( Journey Unuamon in Bible). Bassni genre is born, where there are exclusively animal characters.

The science.

Astronomy.

The Egyptians have long been led by astronomical observations. They grouped the stars on the twelve zodiacal constellations, giving them the names of those animals whose contours reminded their outlines (cat, jackal, snake, scarab, donkey, lion, goat, cow, falcon, baboon, ibis, crocodile); The entire heavenly equator was divided into thirty-six parts, accounted for the status of stars on each hour of the night to fifteen day periods. Egyptians first in history have created a sun calendar. The day of the year was considered the day of the first appearance of the star Sotis, or Sirius (the first day of the month of Tota), which, as the Egyptians believed, was the cause of the Nile spill. The Egyptians were estimated a year in three hundred sixty-five days and it was chosen for three seasons (spill, sowing, harvest) for four months in each (one, FOFI, ATIR, Hoyyak - Tibi, Mexir, Famenot, Pharmuti - Pakhon, Painie, Epiphy, Mesori ); Month consisted of three decades to ten days. By the last month, "Small Year" from five additional days. The day was divided into twenty-four hours, the duration of which was not constant - she depended on the season: short day and long night clock in winter and long day and short night clock in summer. Soul list was conducted by the years of the reign of each Pharaoh.

Mathematics.

The early birth of mathematics was associated with the need to carefully measure the level of water lifting in Nile and take into account available resources. Its development largely determined progress in monumental construction (pyramids, temples).

The accounting system was based on a decimal. The Egyptians knew the fractions, but only those in whom the unit was in the numeric. The division was replaced by consistent subtraction, and multiplied only on 2. They were able to raise the degree and extract the square root. In geometry, they managed to determine the area of \u200b\u200bthe circle relatively accurately (as the square 8/9 of its diameter), but they measured any four- and triangles as rectangles.

Medicine.

The Egyptian art of healing enjoyed special fame in the eastern Mediterranean and had a great influence on Greek and Arabic medicine. Egyptian doctors explained the disease with somatic reasons and only epidemic diseases associated with the will of the gods. Symptoms, as a rule, were taken by them for the diseases themselves, and therapy was aimed at combating individual symptoms; Only in rare cases the diagnosis was established for the totality of symptoms. The main means of determining the disease were inspection, feeling and listening. Egyptian medicine was distinguished by a significant degree of specialization. She reached special success in gynecology and oculistic. The dentistry was well developed, as evidenced by the good condition of the teeth in the mummies and the presence of gold plates on spoiled teeth. Surgical art was also at a high level, as shown by the surgical incents and the preserved treatise on surgery. Thanks to the mummification, doctors have enough deep anatomical knowledge. They developed the doctrine of blood circulation and the heart as its main center. Cosmetics and pharmacology were an integral part of medicine; Medicines were made mainly in special laboratories with temples; Their main mass was pumped and laxatives. All these achievements, however, did not interfere with the doctors to resort to magic and spells.

Geography and ethnography.

There is existing in the closed space of the Nile Valley, the Egyptians were weakly aware of the world around the world, although they knew how to make beautiful topographic plans of a familiar area. About countries outside the Oonta and the 4th Niel threshold they had the most fantastic views. The universe was represented by a flat land with a sky leaning on her on four backups (world mountains); Under the ground was the underworld, the World Ocean stretched around it, and in the center it was Egypt. All susha shared on two great river systems: Mediterranean with Neil and Eritrean with Euphrates, and water element - for three seas: green (Sovr. Red), black (salty lakes Suez Isthmus) and District (Mediterranean). Nile has emerged by their two huge holes in Elefantina. The Egyptians believed that humanity consists of four races: red (Egyptians, or "People"), yellow (Asians), White (Libyans) and Black (Negros); Later they included in this system of Hettites and Myquo Greeks.

Art.

Art in ancient Egypt was closely connected with religious cult and therefore had a special sacred value. The work of the artist was considered a sacred. All kinds of art obeyed strict canons that did not allow the freedom of creativity. Any artistic form sought to express the harmonious unity of the space and earthly, the world of the Divine and the world of human.

Architecture.

Architecture was the leading sphere of Egyptian art. Time did not spare for most monuments of Egyptian architecture; We reached us mainly to cult facilities - tombs and temples.

The earliest form of the tombs - Mastaba (stone bench) - was a massive rectangular structure with walls, tilted to the center; In the underground part (the depth of fifteen to thirty meters) there was a burial chamber with mummy, in the ground - several religious premises, including (on the eastern side) of the chapel, and visiting rooms; There were also the statues of the deceased; The walls were covered with reliefs and paintings that had an informative (glorification of the late) or magical (providing its afterlife) value. With the I-II dynasties, Mastabi served as a place of restoring both pharaohs, and no known dynasties - only known dynasties.

Mastaba became a structural basis for the new form of the royal burial appeared at the III dynasty, the pyramids. The pyramid expressed a new concept of the king as a god, towering over all other people. The task of creating a grand royal burial was solved through its magnification by vertical. The pyramid was built from the stone blocks densely fitted to each other and was focused on the sides of the world; The entrance to it is in the northern part; Inside there were funeral and unloading chambers (for uniform pressure distribution). The first view of the pyramid was the stepped pyramid - Josra Pyramid in Sakkara height in 60 m, erected by Zodhimi Imhotep. She represented six mastaB reduced to each other. With the IV dynasty, the builders began to fill out empties between the steps, as a result of which the classic type of pyramid was found - the attached pyramid. The first pyramid of this type was the pyramid of the Snofer in Dashure (over 100 m). Its successors of the highest stone structures in the history of mankind - the pyramids of Hufu (146.5 m) and Hifera (143 m) in Giza. The royal pyramid was the center of an extensive funeral architectural ensemble, an observed wall: it included a funeral temple, the small pyramids of the queen, Mastabi of the court and nomarhov. With V-Vi, the sizes of the pyramids decreased significantly (not higher than 70 m).

IN initial period The middle kingdom (XI dynasty) emerged a new form of royal burial - the rock tomb, located under the indoor column hall, before which there was a funeral temple (Mentukhotepov tomb). However, the pharaohs of the XII dynasties resumed the construction of the pyramids. They were an average value (Pyramid of Senusert I reached 61 m) and did not differ in great strength due to the new way of masonry: it was the basis of eight stone walls, separated by a radius from the center to the corners and the middle of each side of the pyramid; From these walls at an angle of 45 years old, eight more walls were left; The space between the walls fell asleep with sand and rubble.

In the new kingdom, the tradition of the burial of the kings in the secret rocks in the valley of the kings under the hearts was reappeared. For greater preservation, they were carved, as a rule, in remote mountainous areas. Since the XVIII dynasty, the tomb began to separate from the clock temple (the idea of \u200b\u200bthe architectural inhen).

The dominant form of the temple architecture in the era of the ancient kingdom was a funeral temple, which was an integral part of the burial complex. He was adjacent to the pyramid from the East and was a rectangle with a flat roof of massive known blocks. In the center it was a hall with four-gone monolithic columns and with two narrow premises for the funeral royal statues; The hall passed into an open courtyard, followed by the chapels (the temple at the Hafra Pyramid). With V-VI dynasties, the value of the temple in the mortgage ensemble increases; Its dimensions increase; Architectural decoration is complicated; For the first time, palm columns and columns are used in the form of unpleasant papyrus ligaments; Walls are covered with color reliefs. Later, another type of column occurs - in the form of a ligament of lotus buds. At V dynasty, a new form of the temple appears - the solar temple: the main element is a colossal stone obelisk, the top of which is covered with copper (petrified ray ray); He stands on the elevation; Before them is a huge altar.

With the XI dynasty, the clock temple becomes the central element of the funeral ensemble; It consists of two terraces framed by portists and is crowned with a pyramid, the base of which is the natural rock (the tomb of Mentukhotepov). With the XII dynasty, despite the resumption of the construction of monumental pyramids, it, nevertheless, retains its importance within the framework of Amenhehet III). The temple is finally turning into the center of the National Cult of Pharaoh. It is distinguished by impressive sizes, a large number of rooms, an abundance of sculptures and reliefs. In the temple construction, a colonnade with a new shape of the column (decorated with capitals with the relief heads of the goddess Hator) and a pylon (gates in the form of two towers with a narrow passage) begins to be widely used in the temple construction. The custom occurs to install in front of the temple of a colossal statue or obeliski with lined copper tops.

At the XVIII dynasty, the classic type of the Ground Egyptian Temple (Karnakian and Luxor Temples in FiS) is approved. In the plan, it is a stretched rectangle, oriented from the east to the west; His facade turned to the Nile, from which the road framed by the Sphinxes (Sphynx Alley) is leading to it. The entrance to the temple is made in the form of a pilon, in front of which there are two obelisk and the colossal statues of Pharaoh. Behind the pylon is an open courtyard, surrounded by the perimeter of the colonnade (peristil), which rests on another pylon of smaller sizes, leading to the second courtyard, completely seized by columns and statues of Pharaoh (hypostyl). The hypostille is directly adjacent to the main building of the temple, consisting of one or more columns, the shitty of the statues of gods and utility rooms (treasury, library, pantry). The multiple transition from one architectural space to another (the Carnak ensemble is pulled in length for more than 1 km) carries the idea of \u200b\u200ba slow gradual approximation of a believer in the Divine. Since the Egyptian church was not complete and existed as a set of individual parts, he could be "continued" without disrupting harmony, supplemented with new structures. Unlike a variety of interior decoration, in its external expression He demonstrated the simplicity of the lines corresponding to the monotonous landscape; It violated only a wall painting and bright color.

Over time, the requiem tsarist temples turn into independent monumental structures with massive pilots and the Sphinx alleys (the Amenhotel Temple III with two huge statues of Pharaoh - the so-called colossos of Memnon). A mansion is standing as a clock temple of Queen Hatsepsut in Deir-El Bahri (architect SaintMut), continuing the architectural traditions of the era of the XI dynasty. It consists of three terraces with the cliffs of the halls whose facades are framed by colonnades; The terraces are interconnected by ramps.

Significant changes in the temple construction occur in the Board of Ehnaton. The architects refuse to monumentality and column halls; Colonnades are used only for the pavilions device in front of the pylons. However, the XIX dynasty returns to DoEkhnatonovsky architectural traditions; The striving for grandiosity reaches its apogee - giant pylons, columns and statues of kings, excess decor of interior premises (Amon Temple in Karnaca, Ramses II Temples in Tanisa). The type of rock church is distributed; The most famous - the clock temple of Ramses II in Abu-Simbel (Ramesseum), cut down in a rock for 55 m in depth: The facade of the temple is designed as anterior wall of a huge pilon with a height of approx. 30 m and width approx. 40 m; There are four sitting giganist statues of Pharaoh over 20 m in height; The organization of the internal space reproduces the order of the premises of the classic ground church.

The latest monuments of monumental temple construction in the era of the new kingdom are the Temple of God Honsu in the carnacre, erected under Ryssey III, and the grandiose-free temple of this pharaoh in the Medica-Abu, united with the Tsarist Palace in a single complex. In the subsequent period, such construction refuses. Its final surge occurs only in the Saasan era (the temple of the goddess Neut in Sais with palm colonnades and the colossal statues of Pharaohs).

The secular architecture of ancient Egypt is known very little. About the palace architecture can only be judged by the royal residence of Ehnaton in Achetaton; Palaces of previous periods have not been preserved. The Palace of Ehnaton was focused from the north to south and consisted of two parts connected by the indoor transition - official (for receptions and ceremonies) and private (residential premises). The main entrance was on the north side and led to a large courtyard, on the perimeter of which they stood a statue and which rested in the facade of the palace; In the center of the facade was a pavilion with columns, and on the sides - ramps. Rooms for recreation facilities were adjacent to the front column hall of the palace, indoor courtyards and water gardens.

The house of noble Egyptian, as a rule, was located in the middle of the site, which was obscured by the walls with two entrances - the main and service. In the era of the middle kingdom, it was distinguished by significant sizes (60 ґ 40 m) and could have up to seventy premises that were grouped around the central hall with four columns (kahun fortification). During the period of the new kingdom, if you judge the excavations in Achetaton, the house of a noble person was more modest (22 ґ 22 m). He shared on the right parade (hall and reception room) and the left living parts (bedroom with washed, premises for women, pantry). All rooms had windows under the most ceiling, so the main hall was built above the rest of the premises. Walls and floors were covered with painting. Around the house there were yards, well, household buildings, a garden with a pond and arbors. The House of Proshroud of the era of the Middle and New Kingdom was a small structure, which included a common room, a bedroom and a kitchen; It was adjacent to a small courtyard. Building material served as reed, wood, clay or raw brick.

Sculpture.

The plastic art of ancient Egypt was inseparable from the architecture; The sculpture was an organic part of tombs, temples and palaces. The works of Egyptian sculptors indicate a high degree of technical skill; Their work required great efforts - they cut out, carefully finished and polished the statues of the hardest rocks of the stone (granite, Porphira, etc.). At the same time, they have reliably transferred the forms of the human body; Less than the drawing of muscles and tendons. The main object of creativity of sculptors was the earthly lord or noble, less often idle. The image of the Divine was not central; Usually the gods were pretty schematically, often with the heads of birds or animals.

Already in the period of the ancient kingdom there were canonical types of statues of high-ranking faces: 1) Standing (the figure is straightened to be straightened, frontal, the head is highly raised, the left foot take a step forward, the hands are lowered and pressed to the body); 2) Smearing on the throne (hands are symmetrically laid on her knees or one hand is bent in the elbow) or sitting on the ground with crossed legs. They all produce the impression of solemn monumentality and strict peace of mind; For them, stiffness is characteristic of the posture, the impassive expression of the face, a strong and strong muscles (statue of velmes-rainofer); Before us is a generalized social type that embodies power and power. In a special extent, these features are inherent in the huge status of pharaohs with exaggeratedly powerful torso and magnificent inconsistency of Pos (Statue of Josher, Hafra); In its maximum expression, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Divine Tsarist government is represented in gigantic stone sphinxes - lions from the head of Pharaoh (the first royal statues outside the temples). At the same time, the connection of the sculptural image with a clock cult demanded its similarity with the original, which led to the early appearance of a sculptural portrait, transmitting an individual identity of the model and its character (statues of the architect Chemius, scribe Kai, Tsarevich Kaepera, Bust Tsarevich Anheaf). Thus, in the Egyptian sculpture, the cold arrogance of the appearance and the solemn pose combined with the realistic transmission of the face and body; She carried the idea of \u200b\u200bthe social purpose of man and at the same time the idea of \u200b\u200bits individual existence. The sculpture of small forms was less canonical, since its object could be representatives of the lower layers (the statues of servants and slaves during the work).

In the era of the Middle Kingdom, the leading position in plastic art is occupied by the FVAN school. If first it follows the principles of schematization and idealization (Statue of SENUSERT I from Lishta), then the realistic direction is enhanced in it: the royal statue, glorifying the power of Pharaoh, should at the same time consolidate its specific appearance in the minds of the people. To this end, the sculptors use new techniques - the contrast between the immobility of the posture and the living expressiveness of the carefully worked person (deeply seated in orbits of the eye, painted face and skin folds) and a sharp game of lighting (statues of SENUSERT III and Amememethet III). In a wooden folk sculpture, genre scenes are popular: a plower with bulls, a boat with rowers, a squad of warriors; They are distinguished by the immediacy and truthfulness.

In the early period of the new kingdom, there is a departure from plastic innovations of the previous era: with maximum idealization, only the most common portrait similarity (statues of the Tsaritsa Khatselsut and Tutamos III are preserved; there is a custom to reproduce in sculptural images to know the features of the ruling pharaoh in sculptural images. But, starting with the reign of TUMOS IV, sculptors Refusses from the canonical severity of forms in favor of exquisite decorativeness: before the smooth surface of the statue is now covered by thin flowing lines of clothing and curls of wigs and is animated with a game of lighting. The desire for movement and volume is enhanced; the bodies are soft, the face drawing is greater accuracy. Trend to naturalness and Realisticity is characteristic mainly for the statues of individuals (statue of the family couple of Amenhotpa III, the men's head from the Birmingham Museum). This trend reaches its climax during Ehnaton, when there is a complete gap with a canon; even the idealization is refused even At the image of the king and the queen. Sculptors set themselves the task of conveying the inner world of the character (portrait heads of Ehnaton and Nefertiti), as well as achieve a realistic image of the human body (the figurines of the four goddesses from the tombs of Tutankhamon).

During the anti -khnatonovsky reaction, an attempt is made to return to old antirealistic techniques. The leading again becomes a tendency to idealization, which is characteristic primarily for the Memphis school (statues from the per-Ramses). However, in the plastic art of the XIX-XX dynasty, the dynasties do not give its positions and the realistic direction, which is manifested primarily in the royal portrait: there is no more hyperboized musculature, unnaturally straight poses, a frozen look, aspiring in the distance; Pharaoh appears in the image of a strong, but ordinary warrior, not in the parade, but in everyday robe. The secular image of the king is approved - not God, but a real earthly ruler (Statue of Ramses II).

In the initial period of the late kingdom, plastic art is experiencing decline. In the XI-IX centuries. BC. Monumental sculpture is inferior to small forms (small bronze statuettes). At the end of the IX - early VIII centuries. BC. A realistic sculptural portrait (the figurines of Takharkka, Kushytsky Tsarevien, the statue of the Fan-headlong of Montuemhet) is reborn. In the Sais and Persian epoch, the realistic direction competes with the revived traditionalist trend.

The art of relief and painting.

The relief was an important component of ancient Egyptian art. By the time of the ancient kingdom there were two main types of Egyptian relief - ordinary bas-relief and an in-depth (embarrassed) relief (the surface of the stone that served as the background remained untouched, and the contours of the image crashed). At the same time, a strict system of location of scenes and whole compositions on the walls of tombs was established. The reliefs of the royal tobs carried out three tasks: to glorify Pharaoh as the earthly Lord (scenes of war and hunting), emphasize his divine status (Pharaoh surrounded by the gods) and provide him with blissful existence in the afterlife (diverse snack, dishes, clothes, weapons, etc.) . Reliefs in the tombs of the nobility were divided into two categories: Some chant the merits and the feats of the dead in the service of Pharaoh, on the others they were portrayed everything necessary for another life.

Even in the era of the early kingdom, the basic principles of the relief image (a stove of Narmer) were formed: 1) the belt location of the scenes (one above the other); 2) total plane character; 3) conventional and schematics, partly due to faith in the magic character of the image: the transfer of social status through the size of the figure (Fagation of Pharaoh surpasses all the others, the imaging shapes are slightly smaller, ordinary people - almost pygmy), a combination of different perspectives (head and legs of a person are given in profile , and the eyes, shoulders and hands are deployed in the FAS), showing the object using a schematic fixation of its individual parts (hoof instead of a horse, the head of the ram instead of the ram), consolidation of certain categories of people of certain poses (enemies are invariably depicted by defeated, etc. ); 4) the maximum portrait similarity of the main character; 5) the opposition of the main character to the other participants of the scene with which he contrasts with his tranquility and immobility; At the same time, it always remains out. The reliefs were painted without gradations of shades, the figures were burned by contours.

These visual principles were also used in wall painting, which in the era of the ancient kingdom turned out to be closely related to relief art. It was at that time that two main types of wall painting technique were spread: temperatic surfaces on a dry surface and a color paste tab in advance deepening. It was used exclusively mineral paints.

During the period of the Middle Kingdom, two directions are determined - the metropolitan, which is based on the strict reproduction of the previous samples (the tomb of the pharaohs and the court), and the provincial, which is trying to overcome the row of canons and is looking for new artistic techniques (Narhov tomb in Beni Hassan); For the latter, more natural poses of characters are characterized, refusal of disproportion in the image of the main and secondary participants of the scenes, greater realism in the simplicity and animal show, the wealth of color, bold comparison of light spots. However, with the fall of the independence of Nomov at the XII dynasty, this trend gradually comes off.

In the era of the new kingdom, relief and wall painting are separated from each other, becoming independent types of fine arts. The value of wall painting increases. Paintings are performed on a smooth white plaster covering limestone walls, and differ in stylistic and plot diversity (FVAN wall painting); Reliefs are cut down much less often and only in those rock tombs that cut out of high-quality limestone. There is a book painting close to the chart (illustrations to Book dead).

With the XVIII dynasty, the art of relief and painting undergoes a change in both the scene and the pictorial plan (FVAN school). New topics appear (a variety of military scenes, peer scenes); Attempts are made to pass the movement and volume of figures, show them from the back, in full FAS or full profile; Group compositions acquire three dimensions; Coloring is becoming more natural. The culmination of this evolution becomes the era of Ehnaton and Tutankhamon, when the rejection of the previous canons allows artists to interpret the prohibitive topics (the king in everyday life - For dinner, in a family circle), pay more attention to the surrounding situation (gardens, palaces, temples), transfer shapes in free and dynamic poses without conditional frontal shrug reversal.

Under the last pharaohs of the XVIII and in the era of the XIX dynasty, a storytelling and composite variety remains, interest in the landscape, the desire for portrait accuracy and thorough body modeling. At the same time, there is a return to the traditional principles of composition, idealization of images, disproportion of figure images, especially in the temple reliefs of cult content. After Ramses III, this tendency wins a complete victory; In FVAN art, the realistic direction is dying; Religious topics suppresses secular.

Clothes and nutrition.

From ancient times, the main clothing of men was the Apron, a loiningband or short skirt. The fabric and dimensions differed depending on the social status: in commoners and slaves it was a simple piece of skin or paper matter, fallen hips, at noble - the oblong piece of fabric, tightly tightly turned around the lower back and the top of the belt and the belt. Gradually, the apron and the skirt were lengthened, another longer and wide apron or skirt, sometimes from transparent fabric, was put into fashion. Noble men covered the top of the body. At first, a narrow cloak served for this, which was thrown on the shoulders, or a tiger skin (leopard), defended her back; She was missed under the mouse and the shoulders were tied with belts. In the era of the new kingdom, a dress made of expensive tissue type or cape.

Unlike men, women had to close their body. Their oldest their clothes were a woven dress, felt the body from the breast to the feet feet and kept on the straps, sometimes with short and narrow sleeves; Over time, it began to decorate with multi-colored patterns. Later, noble women began to throw on them thin transparent bedspreads. The costume of the noble egyptian in the era of the XVIII-XX dynasties consisted of a wide shirt, a short skirt and a large raincoat with rounded edges.

The custom of covering your head and wear shoes spread in Egypt only by the time of the new kingdom. Both men and women wore shoes and sandals of leather or narrow papyrus strips; Sandals were attached to her leg belts. Shoes put on only when leaving home. The traditional male headdress served a round tightly adjacent cap of leather or paper fabric, sometimes from leaves and stalks. Pharaohs and Sanovniki preferred a kind of precipitant with long "ears" and with "oblique", twisted behind in a bundle. Women picked up a large handkerchief, collected in folds and covered hair like a cover.

In the early period, men wore short, and women are long and lush hair. Later, men entered the custom shave hair and beard, this fashion spread among noble women. At the same time, the aristocrats began to use overhead beards and wigs, as a rule, curled.

The main food was barley pellets, muffin, fish (primarily dried) and vegetables, the main drink - barley beer. In the diet, the noble meat, fruit and grape wine were also included. Nowilk was not. During the meal, the knives did not use: the food was fed to trays already cut into pieces, which took the right hand with their fingers. Liquid food ate spoons; drank from a glass and cups. The main part of the kitchen utensils was a variety of vessels, buckets and jugs. Tables were originally a round or quadrangular board on a low stand; Real dining tables and chairs appeared later.

Foreign Egyptology.

Until the end of the XVIII century. The history of ancient Egypt was practically not interested. The country was under Turkish domination and remained lowered for Europeans; In addition, the knowledge of the ancient Egyptian writing was lost. The situation has changed due to the campaign of Napoleon I in Egypt in 1798-1801, in which a group of French scientists participated in order to collect and cataloging Egyptian antiquities. The result of their work was multi-volume Description Egypt (1809-1828). Rosett stone with the text, drawn by hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek letter, which was brought to Europe, allowed J.-F. Shampolon (1790-1832) to find in 1822 the decryption method of hieroglyphic writing; He made up the first grammar and the first dictionary of the ancient Egyptian language. Opening J.-F. Shampolon marked the birth of Egyptology.

At the first stage of the development of Egyptology (before the early 1880s), the excavations were mainly inorganized; Due to the lack of qualifications of many archaeologists, adventurers, a number of valuable monuments were inflamed of the damage. At the same time, systematic archaeological studies began, primarily by scientists from Germany and France. An important role was played by the Frenchman O.F. Marette (1821-1881), which carried out excavations in philas, Abidos and Memphis; In 1858 he founded the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. The decryption of the hieroglyphic letter was also completed (R.lexius and Burgsh), a vast work was carried out to collect, systematize and publish discovered inscriptions and material materials. Founded by R.lexius, the German school began to study the ancient Egyptian history and chronology.

At the second stage (the beginning of the 1880s - 1920s), archaeological research was conducted on a strict scientific basis and under the control of the state service of the antiquities of Egypt in Cairo. The English scientist U.M.Flinders Pedim (1853-1942) developed a methodology for determining the relative age of objects and fruitfully used it during excavations in Negada, Abidos, Memphis and El-Amarne. The work of French expeditions coordinated the Institute of Eastern Archeology founded in 1881. From the beginning of the twentieth century. Their colleagues from the United States joined European archaeologists, whose activities were supervised by the Metropolitan Museum in New York, Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Chicago and California Universities.

During this period, large successes were achieved in the field of scientific publication of monuments of ancient Egyptian writing and archaeological materials ( General Directory of the Egyptian Antiquities of the Cairo Museum, Monuments of ancient Egypt, First sources of Egyptian antiquities). The development of a wide variety of aspects of ancient Egyptian history began. Of particular interest was shown to the military-political past of Egypt, his religion and culture. The first summarizing works appeared - History of Egypt since ancient times U.M.Flinders Pitry, History of Egypt American D.Zh.Bresheda (1865-1935), At the time of Pharaoh and Kings and gods of Egypt A.Morue (1868-1938). The concept of the leading role of Egyptian civilization in ancient world; Her chief adherents became the Frenchman of the Frenchman (1846-1916), author Ancient history of the peoples of the classic east (1895-1899), and German E. Meyer (1855-1930), author History of antiquity(1884–1910).

At the third stage (1920s - 1950s), archaeologists appealed to a serious study of the dynastic and earlyness periods. The most sensational event was the discovery in 1922 by the Anglicin H. Carter (1873-1939) of the tombs of Tutankhamon. The problem of the origin of the Egyptian civilization and its relationship with neighboring cultures (Nubian, Libyan, Syrian and Palestinian) was raised. Significant progress has achieved philologists: German scientists A.Erman and H. Hongs made up new dictionary Ancient Egyptian language, English Egyptologist A.H.gardiner issued a grammar of the classical Egyptian language. An active publishing of texts continued: Papyrus Wilbura, Administrative documents of the era of the Ramsinsides, Egyptian onomastics and others. Most scientists abandoned the idea of \u200b\u200bthe domination of Egypt in the ancient East ( Cambridge ancient story). In the 1940s, the Egyptian School of Egyptologists (A. Kamal, S. Khasan, Z.Gonim, A. Bakir).

Since the 1960s (fourth stage) and especially in recent decades, issues and methodological instruments of Egyptology have significantly expanded. With the preservation of traditional interest in political history, culture and religion, they were often considered under the new angle of view. The problem of the ratio of political ideology and political practices (E.Hornung) was raised, the Egyptian concept of the monarchy (E.Palinger) was rethought. A semiotic approach was used in the study of different aspects of the ancient Egyptian mentality: the ideas about the time (E.OTto), the war and the world (I. Khafeman and I.Foos), the image of someone else's (Kees). Significant attention began to be given to the study of historical consciousness (E.OTto, M.Verner, I. von Bekerat). Interest in Economic and Social Structures (V.Helk, B. Kemp), to Egypt's relations with early Greek civilization (V.Helk), with African cultures (J. Malelan) and Jews (A.Malamat), to a little learned before the period XI -VIII centuries. BC. (K. Kitchen).

Domestic Egyptology.

At 19 in. In Russia, interest in Ancient Egypt was limited to collecting collections and descriptions of rarities; The focus of this interest became museums. The situation has changed at the beginning of the 20th century. Thanks to V.S. Golenisheva (1856-1947) and, especially, B.A.Teeva (1868-1920), the father of domestic Egyptology. V.S. Golenishev for his funds organized excavations in Egypt and created an impressive collection of more than six thousand items; He carried out a commented translation of many Egyptian literary texts ( Fairy tale about shipwreck, Journey Unuamona and etc.); In 1915, he moved to Egypt and founded in the Cairo University of the Department of Egyptology. B.A.Teev conducted a vast work on the systematization of Egyptian monuments in Russian museums and organized the department of ancient Egypt with the museum of the visual arts. The main sphere of his scientific interest was Egyptian literature and religion ( God God1898 I. Egyptian literature 1920). Sharing the position of G. Maspero and E. Meyer, he highly appreciated the achievements of the Egyptian civilization ( History of the Ancient East 1912–1913).

Student B.A.Turaeva V.V. Strub (1889-1965), the founder of Soviet Egyptology, first proposed the Marxist interpretation of the ancient Egyptian society as a special type of slave-owned (early workers). His followers of V.I. Avdiyev, M.A. Korostovtsev and Yu.I. Perpelkin put socio-economic relations in the center of its research, primarily the community and slavery; They also conducted a comparative analysis of Egyptian and other Ancient Social Systems; In the 1960-1980th, this direction was continued by O.D. Berlev, E.S. Bogoslovsky and I.A. Stuchevsky. At the same time, certain attention was paid to the issues of cultural and political history - religion (M.A. Korostovtsev, O.I. Pavlov), mythology (I.E. Matseat), language (N.S. Petrovsky), right (and .M. Melier), Reforms of Ehnaton (Yu.I. Perpelkin), History of Wars (V.I. Avdiyev). Since the late 1980s, the range of domestic studies has significantly expanded: along with traditional socio-economic issues (T.N. Sweelva), scientists are trying to reconstruct the mental structures of the ancient Egyptians (A.O. Bolshakov) and more deeply examine the links of ancient Egyptian civilization with neighboring ( G.A. Belova).

Ivan Krivushin

Literature:

Herculeople's teaching of his son Merikar // Bulletin of ancient history. 1950, № 2
Schampolon J.-F. About the Egyptian hieroglyphic alphabet. M., 1950.
Pharaoh Huf and Wizard: Fairy Tales, Stories, Education of Ancient Egypt. M., 1958.
Carter G. Tomba Tutankhamon. M., 1959.
Korostovtsev MA Journey Un-Amuna in Bible. M., 1960.
Mother M.E. Art of ancient Egypt. M., 1961.
Reader on the history of the Ancient East. M., 1963.
King H.A. Egypt to Pharaoh. M., 1964.
Lyrics of ancient Egypt. M., 1965.
Herodotus. History. M., 1972.
Poetry and prose of the Ancient East. M., 1973.
Korostovtsev MA Religion of Ancient Egypt. M., 1976.
Culture of ancient Egypt. M., 1976.
Plutarch. Moralia about Iside and Osiris // Bulletin of ancient history. 1977, № 4
Tale of Peteice III: Ancient Egyptian prose. M., 1977.
Tales and Tale of Ancient Egypt. L., 1979.
Perepelkin Yu.Ya. Amen-Hot-Pa IV coup. Part 1-2. M., 1967-1984
Stuchsevsky I.A. Ramses XI and Herihor: From the history of the ancient Egypt era Ramsursida. M., 1984.
Bolshakov A. O. View of the twin in Egypt of the Old Kingdom // Bulletin of ancient history. 1987, № 2
Christian J. Egypt of the Great Pharaohs. History and legend. M., 1992.
Rak I.V. Myths of Ancient Egypt. St. Petersburg, 1993.
Mother M.E. Selected works on the mythology and ideology of ancient Egypt.M., 1996.
History of the Ancient East: the origin of the ancient class societies and the first foci of slave-owner civilization. Part 2: Front Asia, Egypt. M., 1998.
Texts of pyramids. St. Petersburg, 2000.
Perepelkin Yu. Ya. History of Ancient Egypt. St. Petersburg, 2000.
History of the Ancient East. Ed. IN AND. Cousins. M., 2002.



Ancient Egyptian pyramids to this day remain a mystery for scientists. Their age would not have been able to reliably, and it can only speak about one thing: the age of Egyptian civilization is also a little known. Some artifacts found in Egypt and other launches confirm that ancient Egyptian civilization is much older than modern people used to thinking.

Officially, we believe the Ancient Egyptian civilization exists from the fifth millennium BC.

Our scientists are accustomed to building the history of ancient civilizations as it is convenient. The more riddles arise from a different civilization, the less the facts about it has official science. For example, we are told that the ancient Egypt began its existence from the fifth millennium to our era, but some historians, archaeologists and Egyptologists consider completely differently.

The famous worldwide Herodotus, who lived from 484 to 425 BC, in the second part of his famous historical manuscript wrote the following:

To this day, the usual people of Egypt and the oldest priests chose to give me knowledge about their people. They told about past times, about the dominance of the first Egyptian king, as well as the extreme, on which everything ended. Between them (rulers) passed 341 generation of people, as well as as many government officials. For every century, three generations fell. 300 generations existed for 10 thousand years. The remaining 41 generations existed for 13 thousand years.

The above-described Herodotus data differ significantly from recognized official science. But scientists do not refute them, since the words of Herodotus confirms the historian from Byzantium, living in the 18th century:

The ancient Egyptian people at one time built the stove called the "old chronicle". On it, he displaced thirty dynasties for 113 generations living for 35 thousand years. The 1st Dynasty "Aurites", 2nd - "Metroena", 3rd - Egyptian.

Diogen is a great thinker, argued that Egyptian astronomer scholars had everything necessary to study space objects before the Macedonian appeared, or rather 49 thousand years before the advent of this person. It should be noted that the Macedonian was born in 356 BC.

The ancient Egyptians tried to preserve their knowledge in various ways. Before his descendants, they wanted to convey the following:

The Supreme Priest of the Lord of the Temple, located once in Heliopole, who was called the Manephon, lived in the third century BC. The above city was known for the fact that the science of the ancient Egyptian civilization was supposed to be allegedly nascent. The fact is that it was in the terrain that stored maximum amount Artifacts: manuscripts, papyrus, signs with records and so on. With this information, the manefon was "the history of the ancient Egyptian civilization". In it, he listed all the kings, starting from the very first.

Unfortunately, the works of the manephon were destroyed during fires in the library of the infamous "Alexandrian". From its descriptions really to restore only a few small fragments. According to this thinker, the history of the ancient Egyptian civilization has evolved in this way:

The first person in Egypt was Hepesti, whom people recognized the deity, as it was he gave them a fire. The son of Ghefesta was Helios, who, in turn, appeared the heir to Sosk. After the above characters, the Kronos, Osiris, Typhon, Native Brother Osiris, His Son Choir, came to power. More than one tens of thousand years the power passed from hands to hand without interrupting. Then the ruler appeared, whom Bidis was given. From him began the period of the reign of demigods and gods, which lasted 1255 years. This period was changed to others - for 1,800 years, ordinary people were led again. As a result, another 30 "Memphis" rulers managed a country more than 1.7 thousand years, and after them there was at least one dozen of the highest ranks that rule 350 years. And only then the "spirits of the dead" came to power, whose government lasted more than five thousand years.

This data does not comply with the topics that our scientists offer us. Why don't they pay attention to such interesting information?

In papyrus from Luxor, the real story of Egypt was described

Turin Papyrus acquired in the 1820th year in the town of Luxor. After the acquisition, it was transported to Turin, therefore it is called. To this day, it is stored at the local museum. It also describes the history of ancient Egypt, which, apparently, do not know our modern scientists.

Initially, the length of the papyrus was more than 170 centimeters, but during transportation it was very "battled", so now it remains small fragments. The time when papyrus was made, could not be reliably determined. It is known only that the name of the Ramses 3, the reign period of which - 1185-1153 BC, was numerical on its reverse side. Obviously, the information described in the papyrus was copied from more ancient sources. On an old sheet, all the kings and pharaohs of the ancient country are listed.

An interesting fact is that the list of rulers begins with the names of the gods, such as Pta, Anubis, Amon and so on. Only in 2009 announced that the missing fragments of papyrus, allowing to decipher the information, were found and delivered to the rest. It comes out to the idea that someone intended to hide them.

Ancient Egyptian temple denderer

The most interesting find, testifying that the ancient Egyptian civilization is much older than we think, located in the denderer temple. This find-sensation was not quite ordinary ceiling, incredibly struck the French. Europeans were so strongly amazed by the find, which was taken out of fragments, but a solid monolith. At the moment, the artifact is located in the Louvre, and in the above temple there posted its copied part.

On the surface of the temple, a zodiacal circle calendar of supernatural beauty was depicted. Interestingly, the stars and planets on it were placed in the situation in which they stayed in 90 thousand years before. At least, so told astronomers and scientists. The master who created this artifact clearly saw the sky a little differently.

Secretly stolen piece of pyramid

According to official data, the Pyramid of Heops was erected in 2540 BC. Recently, the planet had a sensational news that two German tourists - an antiquity amateur climbed the pyramid and break from her wall a relatively small piece. After they independently made an analysis, which showed that the age of a piece is at least twenty thousand years.