Solution

Kinetics of electrochemical corrosion

The corrosion rate is expressed in terms of metal loss per unit time. The mass of corroded metal can be calculated using Faraday's law. For example,

Calculate how many grams of lead electric cable were destroyed by the passage of a stray current of 0.002 A in 870 hours.

To solve the problem, we will use a formula reflecting Faraday’s combined law:

m = M eq ∙ I ∙ τ / F

where M eq – molar mass metal equivalent, I – current, τ – time

τ = 870h. = 3132000c.

F = 96500 C/mol

M eq (Pb) = M(Pb) / z ;

M equiv (Pb) = 207.2 / 2 = 103.6 (g/mol)

m = 103.6 · 0.002 · 3132000 / 96500 = 6.7 (g)

Answer: 6.7 g.

Since logic studies the forms of thinking, and thinking is inextricably linked with language, logic is also the science of language.

Language - this is any sign Information system(a system of words or signs) that performs the function of forming, storing and transmitting information in the process of understanding reality and communication between people.

By origin, languages are either natural or artificial.

Natural languages - historically developed sound and graphic sign systems in society. Natural languages arise spontaneously in the process of joint activity and communication between people and nations. Natural languages include different nations, sign language, etc.

Constructed languages - auxiliary sign systems created by groups of people specifically for more accurate transmission of specific information. Artificial languages include musical notes, code system signs, ciphers, Morse code, “thieves’ language” used by criminals, etc.

There are also mixed languages, the basis of which is the natural (national) language, supplemented by symbols and symbols related to a specific subject area. This group of languages includes the language of formal logic.

Certain signs act as symbols. Sign- any sensory perceived object that replaces or represents another object used in the process of cognition or communication as a representative of some object. The most typical are three types of signs: (1) index signs; (2) symbols-images; (3) signs-symbols.

Index signs are associated with the objects they represent as consequences with causes (symptoms, signs, instrument readings, etc.). So, smoke is a sign indicating the presence of fire; elevated temperature of a person - about a disease; change in the height of the mercury column - about the change atmospheric pressure etc.

Signs-images are those signs that themselves carry information about the objects they represent (drawings, maps, paintings, photographs), since they are in a relationship of similarity with the designated objects.

Signs-symbols do not resemble the designated objects (emblems, coats of arms, banners, artistic and graphic symbols, signal signs or cipher signs).

One type of sign is names. Name - This is a word or phrase that denotes an object. Since a name is a sign, it has meaning and meaning. The meaning of a name is the thing denoted by that name. The meaning of a name is the concept of an object. The relationship between a name, object meaning and meaning can be clearly expressed using a triangle, at the corners of which there are: name, concept, object.

This means that the name, concept and object do not coincide, but are closely interrelated: the name stands for subject and expresses concept about the subject.

The relationship between thinking and language (concepts and words) does not mean that they are identical. The same concept can be expressed in different words. For example, words from different natural languages or synonymous words in the same language. Synonyms - words that differ in sound, but are identical or similar in meaning: “labor” and “work”; "agreement" and "contract".

On the other hand, in any language there is homonyms - words that are identical in form and sound, but different in meaning and concept (for example, “key”, “braid”, “bor”, “world”).

Sometimes words lose their original meanings and express new concepts (for example, the word “ink” originally meant “that which inks,” but today “that which writes,” and we can talk about red ink).

The ambiguity of words often leads to confusion of concepts and, consequently, to errors in reasoning. Therefore, it is necessary to know exactly what concept a particular word expresses, and to use this word in a strictly defined meaning.

In scientific knowledge it is necessary to use unambiguous words and combinations. Such words are called terms. Term - a word or phrase that denotes a strictly defined concept and is characterized by unambiguity (at least within a given science or group of sciences).

Based on their composition, names are distinguished between simple ones (“state”) and complex ones, consisting of several words (“Earth satellite”, “Russian state”).

Names can also denote objects that do not exist in objective reality. For example, “centaur”, “mermaid”, “the most distant point of the Universe”, etc. These names are imaginary or empty.

Formal logic uses signs and symbols. There are no homonyms or unclear expressions in this language. This makes it possible to strictly record the course of reasoning and accurately resolve the issue of their correctness or incorrectness.

In logic, a distinction is made between the languages of propositional logic and predicate logic. The language of propositional logic is used to describe the structure of statements, reasoning, and proposals. Under statements understands simple or complex abstract symbolic expressions denoting judgments. Simple statements combined into complex ones using connectives “and”, “or”, “if .., then”, etc., are called propositional statements, and the logic with which such statements are described is sometimes called propositional logic, or propositional calculus. Propositional logic can be classical (two-valued) or multi-valued.

Predicate Logic Language used to describe the internal structure of utterances. Alphabet of the language of predicate logic consists of the following characters:

A) a, b, c... - constant subject terms;

b) x,y,z...- variable subject terms;

V) R,Q,R... - predicate terms (property names);

G) p, q,r... - propositional terms (names of statements);

e) quantifiers: - all, - some;

e) - logical conjunctions, which read respectively: “and”, “or”, “if..., then...”, “if, and only if, then...” and are called the sign of negation, conjunction, disjunction, implications and equivalence;

and) technical signs: , - comma; () - brackets.

Using the given alphabet, a formalized logical system called predicate calculus is constructed. Expressions in the language of predicate logic are called formulas. Formulas can be correctly constructed or incorrectly constructed.

There is a special science of signs - semiotics. This science has three sections - syntax, semantics and pragmatics, which is due to the presence of three aspects of language.

Syntax is a section of semiotics that studies the relationships between the signs themselves (the rules for constructing and transforming language expressions, etc.). In the process of this research, one is distracted from the meanings and meanings of signs.

Semantics is a section of semiotics that primarily studies the relationship of signs to the objects they represent, as well as the meanings of signs, since they are one of the means of establishing a connection between signs and their meanings.

Pragmatics studies a person’s attitude to signs, as well as relationships between people in the process of sign communication.

The language of formal logic allows us to avoid the ambiguity and ambiguity of natural language and reduce the process of checking the correctness of reasoning to “computation”.

Introduction.

1. The concept of language.

1.1 What is language

1.2 Language is a system of codes.

2. Natural language.

3. Artificial language.

Conclusion.

Bibliography

Introduction.

The work of a management specialist involves constant contact and relationships, both with ordinary people and with people professional orientation- constant communication, conveying correctly expressed thoughts. The most important mechanism in contact with society and the individual is language, both natural and artificial.

What is language?

Language is a system of signs that serves as a way of communication, transmission of information and expression of personality. It is also possible to characterize language as a condition for the existence of abstract thinking. Therefore, thinking is a distinctive feature of people.

The language of words is a socio-psychological phenomenon that allows us to transmit and store both our own information and that accumulated by our ancestors. As a result, language is necessary for people and historically determined.

Language is a so-called system of codes and signs. (See Diagram No. 1.) A sign is nothing more than any sensually perceived object (Visual, Auditory or other), serving as a representative of another object and a carrier of information about this object (image signs: photographs, copies of various documents, prints fingers; symbols - for example, alphabetic letters, musical notes, Morse signs).

Scheme No. 1:

A society of people is unthinkable without signs. Any thought can be transmitted from one person to the perception of another, using sound signs. The concept itself, a thought, arises in a person’s head before a sound complex, or word, comes out. When we try to choose a sound complex for a concept, the concept itself is already in our head. In order for a language to appear, a person must first form a sound complex, and then compare it with the world around us, establish a sign correlation.

According to their origin, languages are natural and artificial.

Natural language.

Natural languages are audio (speech) and then graphic (writing) information sign systems that have historically developed in society. They arose to consolidate and transfer accumulated information in the process of communication between people. Natural languages act as carriers of centuries-old culture and are inseparable from the history of the people who speak them.

Human everyday reasoning is conducted in natural language. This language developed with the aim of simplifying the process of communication, the exchange of thoughts at the expense of clarity and accuracy. Natural languages have enormous possibilities of expression - you can express any feelings, experiences, knowledge, emotions.

Natural language performs the main functions – representative and communicative. The representative function is derived from the fact that language is a means of expression through symbols or representation of an abstract nature (for example: knowledge, concepts, thoughts) accessible through thinking to specific intellectual subjects. The communicative function is manifested in the fact that language is the ability to transmit an abstract character from one intellectual person to another. The symbols themselves, letters, words, sentences form a material basis. It implements the material superstructure of language, that is, it is a community of rules for the construction of words, letters and other language symbols, and only with this superstructure does this or that material basis form a specific natural language.

Based on the semantic status of natural language, we note the following:

Based on the fact that language is a set of rules, therefore, there are a huge number of natural languages. The material basis of any language of natural origin is multidimensional, which means that it is divided into visual, verbal, and tactile types of signs. All these varieties are independent of each other, but in large quantities In the languages existing today, they are inextricably linked, and the main ones are verbal symbols.

The material basis of language, of natural origin, is studied only in two dimensions - verbal and visual, otherwise written.

Due to differences in the superstructure and basis, taken separately

natural language, shows the same abstract content unique, unique. On the other hand, in any given language, abstract content is also shown that is not shown to us in other languages. However, this does not mean that each individual language has its own special sphere of abstract content. For example, “Man”, “Man” explains one abstract content to us, but the content itself does not belong to English or to the Russian language. The realm of abstract content is unique to different natural languages. That is why translation from one natural language to another is possible.

The object of logical analysis of language is abstract content, while natural languages are only a necessary condition such an analysis.

The sphere of abstract content is the structural region of various objects. Objects underlie some unique abstract structure. Natural languages show the elements of this structure, as well as some fragments. Any natural language in some sense reflects the structure of objective reality. However, this description shows a superficial and contradictory character.

During its formation, natural language changed - this is due to the interaction of cultures of different peoples and technological progress. As a result of this, some words lose their meanings over time, while others, on the contrary, acquire new ones.

For example, the word “satellite” - previously only one meaning was used (fellow traveler, comrade on the road.), but today it has another meaning - space satellite.

Natural language takes on a life of its own. It contains many features and nuances that make it difficult to express thoughts in words. The presence of a huge number of hyperboles, figurative expressions, archaisms, idioms, and metaphors does not help this either. In addition, natural language is full of exclamations and interjections, the meaning of which is difficult to convey.

Artificial languages.

Artificial languages are auxiliary sign systems created on the basis of natural languages for the accurate and economical transmission of scientific and other information. They are constructed using natural language or a previously constructed artificial language. A language that acts as a means of constructing or learning another language is called a metalanguage, the basis is a language-object. A metalanguage, as a rule, has richer expressive capabilities compared to an object language.

Any artificial language has three levels of organization:

· syntax is the level of language structure where relationships between signs, methods of formation and transformation of sign systems are formed and studied;

· cinematics, where the relationship of a sign to its meaning (meaning, which is understood as either the thought expressed by the sign or the object denoted by it) is studied;

· pragmatics, which studies the ways in which signs are used in a given community using an artificial language.

The construction of an artificial language begins with the introduction of an alphabet, i.e. a set of symbols that denote the object of a given science, and the rules for constructing formulas in a given language. Some correctly constructed formulas are accepted as axioms. Thus, all knowledge formalized with the help of artificial language acquires an axiomatized form, and with it evidence and reliability.

Characteristic feature artificial languages is the unambiguous certainty of their vocabulary, the rules for forming expressions and giving them meanings. In many cases, this feature turns out to be an advantage of such languages in comparison with natural languages, which are amorphous both in vocabulary and in terms of rules of formation and meaning.

Artificial languages of varying degrees of rigor are widely used in modern science and technology: chemistry, mathematics, theoretical physics, computer technology, cybernetics, communications, stenography.

For example, mathematicians from the very beginning sought to formulate proofs and theorems in as clear a dialect of natural language as possible. Although lexicon this dialect is constantly expanding, the basic forms of sentences, connectives, and conjunctions remain practically the same as those that were developed back in ancient times. For a long time it was believed that a “mathematical dialect” consisted of strictly formulated sentences. But already in the Middle Ages, the development of algebra led to the fact that the formulations of theorems often became longer and more inconvenient. Accordingly, calculations became more and more difficult. Even just to understand the phrase:

“The square of the first, folded with the square of the second and

with double the product of the first and the second,

is the square of the first added to the second"

considerable effort is required. Mathematical rigor and convenience began to contradict each other. Then they noticed that this rule of mathematical language can be reduced to several conventional signs, and now this is written briefly and clearly:

x2 + 2 xy + y2 = (x + y)2

This became the first stage in clarifying the mathematical language: the symbolism of arithmetic expressions, their equalities and inequalities was created. The language of mathematical logic, which became the symbolic language of modern mathematics, arose at the moment when the inconvenience of a mathematical language for the needs of mathematics was finally realized. New symbolism clarified the mechanical nature of many transformations and made it possible to provide simple algorithms for their implementation.

The role of formalization of natural language in scientific knowledge and in logic in particular:

1. Formalization makes it possible to analyze, clarify, define and clarify concepts. Many concepts are not suitable for scientific knowledge due to their uncertainty, ambiguity and imprecision. For example, the concept of continuity of a function, geometric figure in mathematics, simultaneity of events in physics, heredity in biology are significantly different from the ideas that they have in everyday consciousness. In addition, some initial concepts are denoted in science by the same words that are used in spoken language to express completely different things and processes. Concepts of physics such as force, work, energy reflect well-defined and precisely specified processes: for example, force is considered in physics as the cause of changes in the speed of a moving body. In colloquial speech, these concepts are given a broader but vague meaning, as a result of which physical concept strength is not applicable to characteristics of, for example, a person.

2. Formalization takes on a special role in the analysis of evidence. Presenting the proof in the form of a sequence of formulas obtained from the original ones using precisely specified transformation rules gives it the necessary rigor and accuracy. The importance of the rigor of proof is evidenced by the history of attempts to prove the axiom of parallels in geometry, when instead of such a proof the axiom itself was replaced by an equivalent statement. It was the failure of such attempts that forced N.I. Lobachevsky recognizes such proof as impossible.

3. Formalization, based on the construction of artificial logical languages, serves as a theoretical foundation for the processes of algorithmization and programming of computing devices, and thereby the computerization of not only scientific and technical, but also other knowledge.

Artificial languages are also used by legal and logical science for the theoretical or practical analysis of mental structures.

The artificial language generally accepted in modern logic is the language of predicate logic. The main semantic categories of the language are: names of objects, names of features, sentences.

Object names are individual phrases denoting objects. Each name has double meaning– substantive and semantic. The subject meaning of a name is the set of objects to which the name refers (denotation). Semantic meaning is the properties inherent in objects, with the help of which many objects are distinguished (concept).

Feature names are qualities, characteristics or relationships of objects. Usually these are predicates, for example, “to be red”, “to jump”, “to love”, etc.

Sentences are expressions of language in which something is affirmed or denied. According to their logical meaning, they express truth or falsehood.

A logical language also has its own alphabet, which includes a certain set of signs (symbols) and logical connectives. Using a logical language, a formalized logical system called predicate calculus is constructed.

Conclusion.

For me, as a future specialist in the field of State and Municipal Administration, relationships with people have great importance. The success of knowledge in my career depends on the correct use of natural n s and artificial languages. The first steps of knowledge are associated with natural language. Gradual study requires more precise research. This is what leads to the creation of artificial languages. The more accurate our knowledge is, the more realistic the possibility of application in practice. Consequently, the problem of the development of artificial languages of science is not only theoretical, it has some practical content. And yet, the main role of cognition lies in natural language. No matter how developed and abstract an artificial language is, it has its source in a certain natural language.

Bibliography.

1. Bell E. T. Creators of Mathematics, Chapter 15. - M.: Education, 1979.

2. Buhler K. Theory of language: The representative function of language. - M.: Progress, 1993.

3. Dal V.I. Dictionary Russian language. Modern spelling. M.: AST, 2008

4. Dmitrievskaya I.V. Logics. M: Flinta., 2006.

5. Nepeyvoda N.N. Applied logic. Novosibirsk, Novosibirsk University Publishing House

6. Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language:

80,000 words and phraseological expressions / Russian Academy Sci. Institute of Russian Language named after. V. V. Vinogradova. - 4th ed., supplemented. - M.: Azbukovnik, 1999

7. Paducheva E.V. Dynamic models in the semantics of vocabulary. M.: Languages of Slavic Culture

8. Ruzavin G.I. Logic and argumentation. M: UNITY., 1997.

9. Starchenko A.A. Kirillov V.I. Logic: A Textbook for law schools Ed. 5th, revised, extra. M.: Yurist, 1995.

10. Kirillov V.I., Starchenko A.A. Logics. M: Prospekt, 1995.

11. Sklyar B. Digital communication. Theoretical basis And practical use. Per. from English - M.: Williams Publishing House, 2003,

12. Ivin A.A. Logics. M:URSS., 1996.

13. Shansky N. M., Ivanov V. V. Modern Russian language. Textbook for pedagogical students Institute for specialties No. 2101 “Rus. language or T." At 3 p.m. Part 1. Introduction. Vocabulary. Phraseology. Phonetics. Graphics and spelling - 2nd ed., corrected and expanded. - M.: Education, 1987.

14. Shiffman H.R. Sensation and perception - P.: Peter., 2003, p. 128.

See: James Boswell, Life of Samuel Johnson, M.: Text, 2003.

British critic, poet and lexicographer. See also there.

Shiffman H.R. Sensation and perception - P.: Peter., 2003, p. 128.

See ibid.

Sklyar B. Digital communication. Theoretical foundations and practical application. Per. from English - M.: Williams Publishing House, 2003, p.39

Kirillov V.I., Starchenko A.A. Logics. M.: Prospekt, 1995. p. 10-11.

For or against artificial languages?

Learning an artificial language has one big drawback - it is practically impossible to use it in life. This is true. In a note entitled "Artificial Languages", published in the Bolshoi Soviet Encyclopedia it is stated that: “The idea of an artificial language common to all humanity is in itself utopian and unrealizable. Artificial languages are only imperfect surrogates of living languages; their projects are cosmopolitan in nature and therefore flawed in principle.” This was written in the early 50s. But even in the mid-60s, the same skepticism was characteristic of some scientists.

Author of the book "Principles of Language Modeling" P.N. Denisov expressed his disbelief in the possibility of implementing the idea of a universal language as follows: “As for the possibility of decreeing the transition of humanity to common language created at least like the Esperanto language, then such a possibility is a utopia. The extreme conservatism of the language, the impossibility of leaps and sharp shocks, the inextricable connection of language with thinking and society, and many other purely linguistic circumstances do not allow this kind of reform to be carried out without disorganizing society."

Author of the book "Sounds and Signs" A.M. Kondratov believes that all existing native languages can never be replaced by “any artificially invented “universal” language.” He still admits the idea of an auxiliary language: “We can only talk about an intermediary language, which is used only when talking with foreigners - and that’s all.”

Such statements apparently stem from the fact that not one of the individual projects of a universal, or world international, language has become a living language. But what turned out to be impossible in some historical conditions for individual idealists and groups of the same idealists cut off from the proletariat, from the masses of the people, may turn out to be quite possible in other historical conditions for scientific groups and the masses of the people who have mastered scientific theory language creation, - with the support of revolutionary parties and governments. The ability of a person to be multilingual - this phenomenon of linguistic compatibility - and the absolute primacy of the synchrony of language (for the consciousness of those who use it), which determines the absence of influence of the origin of the language on its functioning, opens up for all peoples and nationalities of the Earth the path on which the problem of their problems can and should be solved. linguistic community. This will give a real opportunity for the most perfect project of the language of the new humanity and its new civilization to turn into a living, controlled language on all continents and islands of the globe. developing language. And there is no doubt that it will not only be alive, but also the most tenacious of languages. The needs that brought them to life are diverse. It is also important that these languages overcome the polysemy of terms that is characteristic of natural languages and unacceptable in science. Artificial languages make it possible to express certain concepts in an extremely concise form and perform the functions of a kind of scientific shorthand, economical presentation and expression of voluminous mental material. Finally, artificial languages are one of the means of internationalization of science, since artificial languages are united and international.