Confrontation between Themistocles and Aristides.

Themistocles proposed creating a strong navy.

Aristide argued that the ground forces needed to be strengthened.

The events of 489 -480 are characterized by the confrontation between Themistocles and Aristides.

In the second half of 1980, favorable conditions developed for the implementation of Themistocles’ naval program. New income from the Lavriysky mines went to create a fleet. Thanks to this, Greece strengthened its naval position and developed trade relations. In 482, Themistocles achieved the expulsion of Aristides.

Campaign of Xerxes.

By the end of the 80s of the 5th century BC. The situation in Persia stabilized and King Xerxes began to prepare for a new campaign against Greece. Xerxes ordered a canal to be dug along the coast of Thrace in order to safely transport the fleet.

Formation of a pan-Hellenic alliance against the Persians.

480 - Xerxes' army crossed the Hellespont and began moving towards Thessaly. Athens and Sparta entered into a defensive alliance before the Battle of Marathon, which served as the basis for the creation of an anti-Persian coalition.

In 481, the Hellenes, ready to fight the Persians, entered into an alliance sanctified by sacrifices and an oath.

In 481, the first meeting took place when Xerxes and his army were in Sardis. It was decided to make it a religious center - the sanctuary of Poseidon in Isthmus. Sparta became the hegemon of the union, i.e. Sparta led all ground forces and navy. The Probulian Council decided to send a land army with King Leonidas to Thermopylae to protect the mountain pass, and a fleet under the command of the Spartan Eurybiades to Cape Artemisium.

Naval battle at Cape Artemisium.

The Greeks concentrated 7,000 soldiers and 300 experienced Spartan warriors personally selected by King Leonidas at Thermopylae. And a fleet of 271 ships blocked access to the Persian fleet on the Artemisium-Thermopylium line. Task ground forces- detain the Persians while they go naval battle. Thanks to favorable weather conditions, the military tricks of the Greek commander Themistocles and the narrowness of the straits, the Hellenes, despite the numerical advantage of the enemy, were able to delay the Persian fleet. After receiving news of the loss of the Battle of Thermopylae, the death of Leonidas and 300 Spartans, the protection of the straits near Artemisium lost its original significance. The fleet retreated to Athens.

Battle of Thermopylae.

They managed to hold off the Persians for a very long time until one of the Greeks, namely Ephialtes, told Xerxes about a secret mountain path. Having learned about this from scouts, Leonid released most of the army and was left alone with 300 soldiers. All the defenders of Thermopylae and Leonidas died, delaying the Persian troops as much as possible.

IIII. Decisive battles of the Greco-Persian wars.

Battle of Salamis.

The Battle of Salamis was a naval battle between the Greek and Persian fleets during the Greco-Persian Wars, which took place in 480 BC. e. near the island of Salamis in the Saronic Gulf of the Aegean Sea near Athens.

The battle was preceded by a number of events that could significantly influence the further course of the war. The Persian army occupied and destroyed Athens. Residents of the city were previously evacuated to the nearby island of Salamis. The entire allied Greek fleet was concentrated in the narrow straits between the island and the mainland. Serious disagreements arose among the Hellenes. Most military leaders proposed leaving Salamis and directing all forces to defend the Isthmus of Corinth. The Athenian strategist Themistocles pointed out that only in narrow straits could the Greeks defeat the Persian fleet, which was superior in both the number of ships and the quality of training of sailors. Seeing the impossibility of influencing the decisions of other military leaders, he decided on a trick. Having sent his trusted messenger to Xerxes, he ordered to tell him that the Greeks were going to flee, and if the king wanted to destroy the Greek fleet, then he should immediately begin battle.

For the Greeks, the only possibility of a decisive naval victory was a battle in a narrow space, where the enemy’s numerical superiority was leveled out. By entering the straits between the mainland and Salamis, the Persians deprived themselves of their advantages. For them, the start of the Battle of Salamis was a decisive strategic mistake, which determined the outcome of the battle and the further course of the war.

After him, Xerxes left part of the army led by Mardonius in Thesalia and he himself hastily retreated to Asia Minor.

Battle of Plataea.

In 479, trying to destroy the alliance from within, Mardonius gifts the most influential people in the cities of the Peloponnese, to which they promise to delay the advance of the Spartan army, and also sends the Macedonian king Alexander to Athens in the hope of concluding an alliance. But the plan failed and Alexander was expelled from Athens. Therefore, Mardonius again captured and burned Athens.

The united army of the Greeks marched against Mardonius. But moving at night, they ungrouped and began to retreat. During the retreat, some of the Greek units got lost in the dark. In the morning, Mardonius discovered three of their scattered groups. Persian archers and cavalry attacked the Spartans. Thinking that the Spartans were almost destroyed, he brought the Persian infantry into the battle, but underestimated the discipline and resilience of the Spartans. They repelled the attack, then counterattacked. A terrible battle began, which for a long time did not bring an advantage to either side. Meanwhile, the Athenians, who were on the left of the Spartans, were attacked by the combined forces of the Persians, Thebans and other pro-Persian Greeks. The contingent of Allied troops that had been in the center and had meanwhile reached Plataea now rushed to the aid of the Spartans and Athenians, but were also attacked by the Persian and Theban cavalry. Although this prevented their further advance, it still saved the Spartans and Athenians from encirclement. As a result, the latter managed to launch a counterattack and push the Persians and Thebans back to the river. Azop. Mardonius died in the battle, the Persians began to lose their combat effectiveness, having lost their commander. With the arrival of the allies, the Spartans redoubled their efforts, and soon the Persians fled to the river. The Greeks pursued them, crossing the rushing stream and inflicting serious casualties. Thebes was besieged and capitulated a month later.

Battle of Cape Micale.

479 - August. Battle of Mycale. Almost at the same time, the Greek fleet under the command of the Spartan Leotychides was fighting off the coast in the Ionian Sea, the Persian fleet retreated to Cape Mycale, near Samos, where Xerxes left strong army. Unable to engage the Persians in a naval battle, Leotychides landed troops and attacked the Persian army, a rather foolish move since the Greeks were heavily outnumbered. However, as the battle began, a contingent of Ionian Greeks who were part of the Persian army defected to the Spartans. The Greeks won a complete victory, capturing Cape Mycale and the Persian fleet.

V. 459-449 - Greek attack on Egypt and the end of the Greco-Persian wars.

The defeat of the large Persian fleet and land army at Eurymedon not only brought the Greek cities of southern Asia Minor and Cyprus under Athenian influence, but also shook Persian dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean in general, where separatist movements in the satrapies revived. The situation was aggravated by the dynastic struggle. In 465 BC. e. As a result of palace intrigues, Xerxes and his eldest son were killed, and the youngest son Artaxerxes ascended the throne. Separatist forces in Egypt took advantage of the situation. In 460 BC. e. An uprising broke out, led by Inar, a representative of the Libyan aristocracy. The fall of such a rich satrapy as Egypt would put the Persian kingdom in a difficult situation and could mark the beginning of its political disintegration. The Athenians decide to provide generous assistance to Inar. In 459 BC. e. a well-equipped squadron of 200 ships and 20 thousand soldiers was sent to help the Egyptian rebels. The Athenian squadron entered the mouth of the Nile and rose to the capital of Egypt, Memphis. Interacting with Inarus, the Athenians inflicted several defeats on the Persian satrap and captured Memphis. However, in 455-454. BC e. the new Persian army sent to Egypt managed to defeat the rebels and then the Athenian fleet. The death of large Athenian forces in the swamps of the Delta greatly shook the Athenian military power and political prestige. The Athenians feared uprisings and discontent among the allies. Under the pretext that the allied treasury, kept in the temple of Apollo on the island of Delos, could be captured by the Persians or pirates, the Athenians unilaterally transferred it to the treasury of the temple of Athena. From then on, the allied treasury began to be considered in fact as part of the Athenian treasury itself, and the allies from members equal to Athens were, to a certain extent, like subjects. That is why the fact of the transfer of the union treasury from Delos to Athens in 454 BC. e. is considered a milestone in the transformation of the Delian symmachy into the Athenian arche (power).

The restoration of Persian rule in Egypt and the defeat of the Athenians changed the political situation in the Eastern Mediterranean in Persia's favor. But the forces of Athens, which had complete control over the enormous resources of the Athenian maritime union, were still very large. The successful Cimon again (he was returned from exile) organizes an expeditionary army to support the Egyptian rebels and the Greek cities of Cyprus besieged by the Persians. In 450-449 BC e. military operations are concentrated in Cyprus. Cimon managed to defeat a strong royal fleet near the city of Salamis, capturing a number of Cypriot cities. In an effort to revive the separatist movement in Egypt, Kimon sent 60 warships there. But these plans were not destined to come true. During the siege of one of the Cypriot cities, Kimon died, and the Athenian squadron was recalled back. This recall meant that the Athenians were abandoning their claims to the Eastern Mediterranean, where the power of the Persian king was fully restored. 449 BC e. was the last year of the long Greco-Persian wars. The Athenian aristocrat, cousin of Aristides and close relative of Cimon (he was married to his sister), Callias, was sent to Cyprus to make peace with the Persians. The terms of the Peace of Callias (449 BC) ended the Greco-Persian Wars and sealed the Greek victory. The Persian king recognized the independence of all Greek city-states of Asia Minor, pledged not to conduct military operations against them, and not to send a military fleet into the Aegean Sea and the straits. The Greeks made commitments not to interfere in the affairs of the Eastern Mediterranean and Egypt.

If the Greco-Persian Wars were the most glorious period in Spartan history, then the Battle of Thermopylae Gorge was truly Sparta's finest hour. The Spartans resorted to a completely new tactic: they embarked on a feigned flight, and then turned around and smashed their pursuers who had mixed their ranks. For such tactics to bear fruit, the troops had to have excellent training. When the Spartans heard rumors that the Persians had become aware of the passage through Mount Callidromus, King Leonidas realized that he risked being cut off from the main forces and released his allies. Only 300 Spartans and 400 Thebans (obviously hostages) remained with him, who, as Leonidas assumed, were ready to defect on the side of the Persians, as well as 700 Thespians who refused to leave Leonidas. Their commander was Demophilus, son of Diadromus. At the first stage of the last battle, the Greeks inflicted great losses on the Persians; two brothers of Xerxes were killed. However, Leonidas died in this battle; His body was recaptured by the Greeks after a desperate battle, and the remnants of the detachment retreated to a small hill located at the entrance to the gorge, where they decided to make a final stand. By this time, many warriors held only fragments of their spears in their hands, others had lost their swords and were forced to use their hands and teeth.

The Persians decided to finish the job with throwing weapons in order to avoid even greater losses. The Spartan Dienek is considered the bravest of those who took part in this battle. Before the battle, someone said that when the Persians started shooting with their bows, their arrows would block the sun. Dienek replied that this was good news, since it would be possible to fight in the shadows. After him, the brothers Alpheus and Maron, the sons of Orsifant, are considered the bravest of the Spartans. Among the Thespians, Dithyrambus, the son of Garmatidas, is recognized as the most courageous. An epitaph was carved on the tombstone of the Spartans, which became legendary:

Traveler, tell the Lacedaemonians what is here

we lie, having faithfully fulfilled the law.

Bronze figurine of a Laconian warrior from Dodona conveys appearance Spartan hoplite from the era of the Greco-Persian wars. All the warriors in the illustration are based on this figurine. The shell is one of the last examples of the “bell” type, already in use at this time roaring. Again, long hair can be noted. Xerxes is said to have been greatly surprised when spies reported to him that Spartans carefully combed their hair before battle. No images of Thespian hoplites have reached us.

It is unknown to what extent the unification of clothing and equipment reached in the Spartan army during the Greco-Persian wars. Of course, a certain standardization was present, if only because the “bell” shells and Corinthian helmets were almost the same, with the exception of minor variations. The crest of the Dodon figurine is attached to a high cone rising above the helmet, but in many other images the crest is attached to a crest on the dome of the helmet. One can also note minor differences in the details of clothing, such as the ornament on the chiton.

Battle of Thermopylae

Herodotus - Book VII (205-228) ... There was a small path that led to the rear of the Greek detachment. The Persians were approaching, and when they reported to Xerxes that the passage was occupied, the king laughed loudly: an insignificant handful of people decided to hold back his millions! He sent ambassadors to Leonid with instructions to immediately issue weapons. “Come and take it!” said the Spartan king Leonidas to the ambassadors. The Persians called it crazy to try to fight them. “There are so many Persians that they will darken the sun with their arrows,” said the ambassadors. “So much the better,” answered the Spartan Dienek, “we will fight in the shadows.” Xerxes hesitated to attack; he did not want to believe that the Greeks decided to defend the passage, and gave them four days to think: let them go, the king thought, wherever they want, but the Greeks did not even think of retreating. The deadline passed, and the king ordered an assault on the gorge. "The enemy is approaching!" - one of the Greek guards shouted. "Great! - said Leonid, “and we are approaching the enemy.” Then he calmly arranged the phalanx for battle. The Persians immediately came across a high iron wall of tightly closed shields, from which clouds of fired arrows bounced off with a whistle; crowd after crowd rushed to break this wall, but it stood, as before, invulnerable, bristling with a row of long spears in the firm hands of the fighters. The pile of the dead grew higher and higher in front of them, like a living rampart thrown hastily by a skillful hand. Xerxes sent the bravest of his army, the “immortals,” but they also fell without breaking the Spartans. Not a single Persian wanted to go to obvious death anymore, then the king jumped up from the throne from which he was overlooking the battle, and in terrible anger ordered his army to be driven out with whips. A day passed, two, three, and many Persians died here; Much more of them would have died if there had not been a traitor among the Greeks, a resident of a nearby town. His name was Ephialtes...

On the hill where the last of the Greeks fell, the Spartans erected a cenotaph for their brave king - an empty tomb - with a lion made of stone standing on it. The inscription on the cenotaph, composed by Simonides, reads:

“Of the animals, I am the strongest; Of the people, the strongest is the one whom I guard here in a stone coffin.”

The Spartans who fell along with Leonidas, in the place where they fought and were buried, had the following inscription:

“Traveler, if you are in Sparta, tell the Lacedaemonians that we fell here, true to our duty.”

To all the Greeks who fell at Thermopylae, the following inscription was made:

“Four thousand Peloponnesians once fought here with an army of three million.”

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