The formation of a new culture in the 1930th. What policies in relation to the church was conducted by the Soviet state. Culture in mass society

I Congress of Soviet Writers - Congress of lessons

August 17 - September 1, 1924, the congress of Soviet writers took place in the column hall of the House of Unions in Moscow - the event is significant, such and mysterious ...

The country built a line of national, inner support. Most of our managers began to understand that we are in the upcoming fight with the mir of fascism and capital we cannot count on the help of the Miro Proletariat, should rely on their people, their economy, history, culture.

And at this time, the People's Commissarpros, where he tried to lead the N.Krupskaya, "expelled" from the school libraries of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and other "unpoletarian" writers. But the patriotic group of leaders of the country gave a signal to the publication of the classics of domestic literature by millionic circulations, creating libraries for schoolchildren, peasants, Komsomol members, Krasnoarmeys from the works of N. Gogol, L. Tolstoy, A. Pushkin, N.Nekrasov, M.Lontov, I. Krylova.

The books of the works of Pushkina flooded the country in 1937.

The historical traditions, which caused the character of the Russian people of the winner over foreign invaders were revived.

Revolutionaries of all epochs were sweating, yielding the place of St. Alexander Nevsky, Suvorov, Kutuzov, Peter first. In the letter of the leaders of the country - Stalin, Zhdanov, Kirov - it was said that it was necessary to respect the history of the country and her heroes: military, scientists, cultural figures.

I Congress of Soviet writers has become a field of ideological fights of many forces, and not only within the country. A considerable part of Russian writers, without taking the actions of the Soviet government in the whirlpool of historical events, left Russia. Russian literature in exile for many years kept the spirit, style, the image of the domestic classics. Among them are great I. Bunin, I.Shelev, I. Lielin.

Someone returned to their homeland (A. Tolstoy, I. Kookin, M. Gorky). On the territory of Soviet Russia, as it seemed to many, the literature will never be revived. The leaders of those who announced themselves with the "proletarian" writers did not take any continuity and proclaimed: "In the name of our tomorrow - burn Raphael, we destroy museums, melt the arts of flowers ..." Ruthless "proletarian" writers, genuine "frantic jeques" only Assign the right to be considered representatives of literature. All of these Averbahi, Lelevich, Smeotian, Libidian, Utkin, Yermilova cited any attempts to nationally think, to peer into life, to make it a subject of artistic understanding, the search for truth. Everything in the literature was subordinated to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Mirov Revolution, the destruction of "before the foundation" of the old Mira and throw to the coming. I did not notice the outstanding stories M.Sholokhov, through the teeth they talked about the talent of L. Lenov, V. Shishkova, with contempt calling them "fellow travelers."

The main road of the literature turned out to be in the hands of Rappa, VARAPA, MAPPA - the so-called proletarian organizations of writers. They captured almost all the literary and socio-political editions, waving a battle of criticism, beat all recalcitable, non-standard trying to create national literature.

The society was then inhomogeneously, there were many people who were the basis of the pre-revolutionary system. And although by 1936, it was announced in the Constitution on the equality of all people, in fact it was not.

In 1932, the party decree "On the restructuring of literary and art organizations" was the first prevention of "violent jealousness", which decided to eliminate the Association of Proletarian writers and unite all writers supporting the platform of Soviet power into the Unified Union of Soviet writers. M. Gorky, who is considered to be the initiator of this decision, was still in support of Rappa, in which he said, "the most competent and cultural writers-parties are united."

The congress was opened on August 17, 1934 by his report A.M. Gorky. He returned to the Soviet Union by this time. Of course, you can skeptically and critically refer to the I Congress of Writers, but he still unfolded the panorama of the acting, germinating, diverse literature of the country. Did he call all worthy names? No, naturally. Rappovschina did not pass his position, the Trotskyist-Bukharin opposition gave her "fight" at the congress.

You can attribute the "gear" to Stalin, but do not forget that N. Bukharin (about poetry, poetics and objectives of poetic creativity), K. Teks (about the world literature and objectives of proletarian art). But it was N. Bukharin back in 1927 published the famous "evil notes" about Sergey Yesenin. After that, for almost 30 years, Yesenin disappeared from publishing plans, school textbooks and advantages. Bukharin was merciless to Mayakovsky. As cruel was to Russian poets K. Tek.

They wanted to form their own series of recognized poets and managers close to them in spirit. M.Gorky used to put pressure on Stalin and Zhdanov. But the conversation about literature, artistic creativity, folk origins, Russian history, talent and language was still held, despite the loud proletarian rhetoric of Rappov. M.Gorky said: "The beginning of the art of the word is in folklore. Collect our folklore, learn from it, process it ... The better we will know the past, the easier it is, the more deeply and joyfully understand the great meaning of our real creativity. "

The Union of Writers was largely subordinated to the state and party leadership, but the conditions for creativity, the material support writers were given.

Option 2.

The first congress of Soviet writers took place from 17 to 30 August 1934. This truly significant event was preceded by the decision of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) "On the restructuring of literary and art organizations", from which it was necessary that numerous writer organizations were to unite in one, consisting of writers completely "supporting the platform of Soviet power." The authorities wanted to unite completely different in worldview, creative methods and aesthetic propensions of people. The place of the first All-Union Congress of Writers became the column hall of the House of Unions. For so much a solemn event, it was necessary to decorate the room, after small debates it was decided to rave portraits of classics of literature in the hall. That immediately became the reason for the irony of malicious writers: There was enough space to all be included in the podium, who is in the parter, and who is just on the wall! So, for example, all Ozzy, the fact came as in a dream - in the Department of Tolstoy Alyosha, Tolstoy Lev - on the wall.One of the delegates of the first congress of the Union of Writers of the USSR A. Karavayeva recalled the bottom of the opening of the Forum: "The Sunny August-Town in the morning of 1934, approaching the house of the unions, I saw a big and lively crowd. Among the talk and applause - just like in the theater - someone's a young voice was heard, which vigorously called for: "Comrades delegates to the first congress of Soviet writers! Entering this room, do not forget to raise your historical mandate! ... Soviet people wish everyone to see you and know! Call, comrades, your last name and place your delegate ticket! ". According to mandatory data, men prevailed among the delegates of the first congress of the Writers of the USSR - 96.3%. The average age of the participants is 36 years. Middle literary experience - 13.2 years. By origin in the first place, the peasants came first - 42.6%, from the workers - 27.3%, the employment intelligentsia is 12.9%. From the nobles only 2.4%, the ministers of the cult - 1.4%. Half of delegates - members of the WCP (b), 3.7% of CPS (b) candidates and 7.6% of Komsomol members. The number of prosaikov among the participants of the congress - 32.9%, poets - 19.2%, playwrights - 4.7%, critics - 12.7. Children's writers - 1.3% and journalists - 1.8%. Love and the national composition of the congress. Russians - 201 people; Jews - 113; Georgian - 28; Ukrainians - 25; Armenians - 19; Tatars - 19; Belarusians - 17; Uzbeks -12. Representatives of another 43 nationalities were represented from 10 to one delegates. There were even Chinese, Italians, Greeks and Persians.

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Theme and idea, conflict acuity and artistic features of the play

In 1926, 43% of people aged 9-49 years and most of the older people were illiterate. In 1927, there were 119 thousand schools in the country, there were 1,200 universities and technical schools. IN 1930 G. was tasked with universal compulsory initial learning and elimination of illiteracy. In accordance with the specified decisions in the USSR with 1930-1931 gg Commitable initial (four-year) teaching of children, as well as adolescents, who have not passed initial learning were introduced everywhere.

In industrial cities, a task was made to carry out all community in the volume of school-seven-year-old. As a result of the All-Union Census of the population on January 17, 1939. The percentage of competent population over the age of 9 reached 81.2 (men - 90.8, women - 72.6). In the USSR operated 152 thousand schools. The system of secondary special and higher education has developed a rapid pace. In 1940, 4,400 universities worked in the country, by the end of the second five-year plan, the Soviet Union came out on the 1st place in the world in the number of students and students.

Significant results were achieved in natural and technical sciences.
A major achievement of chemical science was the development by 1928 S.V. Lebedev original method of obtaining synthetic rubber from ethyl alcohol.
Serious discoveries were made in nuclear physics: D.V. Skobeltsyn has developed a method for detecting cosmic rays, D.D. Ivanenko put forward the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus from protons and neutrons, A.E. Ioffe invented a multifaceted insulator, N.N. Semenov Successfully worked on the problems of chain reaction theory.
Research K.E. Tsiolkovsky won the priority of the USSR in the development of theoretical problems of space development. IN 1930 G. The world's first jet engine, operating on gasoline and compressed air, was constructed by F.A. Zander.

In 1929, the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences was founded. IN AND. Lenin (Vaschnil) with 12 institutes (President - N.I. Vavilov). In the same year, the Belarusian Academy of Sciences was created. By the end of the first five-year plan, Urals are organized, Far Eastern and the Transcaucasian branches, Kazakhstan and Tajik Bases of the USSR Academy of Sciences; In 1935, three new branches were created instead of the Transcaucasian branch; Azerbaijani, Armenian and Georgian.

IN years The second five-year plan creates new physico-technical institutions in Kharkov, Dnepropetrovsk, Sverdlovsk, Tomsk. In total by 1937 there were 867 research institutes and their branches in which 37,600 researchers worked.

Before his death in 1936 continued the research of the famous Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov. Large success achieved an outstanding breeder I.V. Michurin. The institution of the Genetics of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the All-Union Institute of Crop (VIR) (head - N.I. Vavilov) played a prominent role in the development of Soviet and world science.
but development Sciences braked repression. Many outstanding scientists were repressed, including N.I. Vavilov, S.P. Korolev, etc.

Much more modest were the achievements of social sciences.
The role of historical education, historical research has increased. In 1934, the teaching of history in universities is restored, a historical and archeography institute is created, in 1933 - the Historical Commission, in 1936, in connection with the liquidation of the Communist Academy and the transfer of its institutions and institutions, the Institute of History was formed. In the 30s years The teaching of history in the middle and highest school is deployed.

A more tragic situation develops in the field of literature and art. In April 1932, the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) adopted a resolution "On the restructuring of literary and art organizations". Instead of numerous literary groups, it was considered appropriate to create a single alliance of the Writers of the USSR.
The repression of the 30s was touched upon the writers, first of all Rappov ideologues (L. Averbach, V. Kirschon, I. Grossman-Roshchina, Gorbachev, Lelievich, etc.); Of the more than 50 Writers belonged to the literary groups, three - O. Mandelstam, S. Tretyakov, I. Babel, were repressed. "Peasant" same writers (N. Klyuev, S. Klychkov, P. Oreshin, I. Kasatkin, I. Pribrudad, P. Vasiliev, V. Nasvkin, Pimen Karpov) were killed, except Karpov.

However, these years Significant works are created: "Silent Don" and the 1st part of the "raised virgin" MA Sholokhov, "Master and Margarita" M.A. Bulgakov, poems and poems A.A. Akhmatova, P.N. Vasilyeva, N.A. Klyuev, O.E. Mandelstama, M.I. Tsvetaeva, Novels and Tale A.M. Gorky, A.N. Tolstoy, N.A. Ostrovsky, A.A. Fadeeva, I. Ilf and E. Petrov, etc.
In these years Created outstanding works of Soviet cinema.
In painting, a sculpture, A. Dainek, M. Nesterov, P. Corin, M. Greek, P. Konchalovsky, Yu. Pimenov, V. Andreev, V. Mukhina, I. Shadd; in music - B. Asafyev, R. Glier, Yu. Shaporin, D. Shostakovich, etc.

Education

The 1930s are one of the most controversial periods in history not only by the political, economic, but also cultural development of the Soviet state. In the field of education continued to combat illiteracy. The first five-year plan envisaged the introduction by 1932 of universal initial training of children of younger school age. However, scarce financing, a weak material base, the lack of a sufficient number of teachers and textbooks did not allow everyone to carry out a scheduled time. Universal mandatory initial training in the whole country was introduced by the end of the second five-year plan (1937). Increased financing allowed in the 1930s to build more than 30 thousand school buildings, release about 300 million copies of stable textbooks for all subjects, twice the network of pedagogical educational institutions to prepare teachers. In 1937, the cities introduced a universal compulsory seven-year (incomplete average) education, and in 1939 the task of transition to universal average formation (decade) was set. Training in high school has become paid since 1940 (300 rubles per year). Most urban youth after the secondary school went to the handicraft schools and schools of factory learning (FZO) who were preparing a personnel reserve of qualified labor force.

In early 30s, the theory of school death was rejected in the 20s. The general was accompanied by a serious primary and high school reform, turning to the traditions of the pre-revolutionary school. In schools introduced a strictly defined schedule, the tough regulation of the educational and social work of schoolchildren. The main form of organization of the educational process was the lesson. Together, "scattering books" was introduced stable textbooks on the basics of science. But, as in the 20s, training sought to bring close to production. Most schoolchildren led public work within the framework of the Pioneer and Komsomol organizations.

In 1934, the decision of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) and SCA of the USSR restored the teaching of history in schools, and historical faculties who were preparing highly qualified historian teachers opened in Moscow and Leningrad universities.

In the 1930s, major changes occurred in higher education. If in 1928, a course was taken to accelerated training, a reduced training course, a narrow specialization that reduced the quality of study, since 1932, the emphasis was made on the quality and fundamentality of training of specialists. The entrance exams in universities were restored, the brigade-laboratory learning method was replaced by a lecture-seminary, collective responsibility for the quality of study - individual. Party mobilization on studies in universities (parties) were canceled, booking places for women, social restrictions on admission to universities and finally famous slaves. To increase the responsibility and role of teachers in the educational process of SNK, in 1934, scientific degrees and titles. The increase in the expenses for the highest school allowed not only to improve the quality of training of specialists, but also significantly expand the geography of higher education. By the end of the 1930s, more than 100 cities of all republics of the USSR had universities and institutions. In 820 universities, more than 800 thousand students were studied, of which about 60% were women. As of January 1, 1941, 908 thousand specialists with higher education worked in the national economy of the USSR. More than half of them were immigrants from the working and peasant environment.

Hundreds of universities and thousands of technical schools contributed to the rapid growth of the Soviet intelligentsia. By the beginning of the 1940s, its number reached 14 million, of which 2.4 million had a higher and secondary special education (17%). Significant remained the proportion of practitioners, i.e. specialists without the necessary education engaged in predominantly mental labor. In general, the intelligentsia of the USSR became the same type in the socio-economic and ideological and political relations. The 1936 Constitution proclaimed its labor and full editing of society. However, the party-state leadership of the USSR refused to her in an independent role in the life of society, considering it as a "layer", standing in third place after the working class and the collective farm peasantry.

The science

In the 1930s, the main feature of the development of science was a steep turn to the needs of the country's economic development. As before, the main scientific center of the country was the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, whose branches since 1932 began to be created in the capitals of the Union republics. More than a thousand research institutes of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and economic addicts developed the basic scientific and technical problems provided for by state plans.

In the early 1930s, based on the development of Soviet chemists, led by Academician S.V. Lebedev, the production of synthetic rubber from ethyl alcohol was established. In 1932, geologists under the leadership of Academician I.M. Gubkin opened new oil-bearing areas in the Urals and in Bashkiria, called "second Baku". Academician N.I.Vavilov gathered the world's largest unique collection of cultural plants of five continents for studying and practical use. Especially significant were scientific developments of physicists - A.F. Ioffe, S.I.Vavivova, D.S. Ogabrensky, P.L. Kapitsa, I.E.Tamma, I.V. Kurchatova, L.D.landau and many Others who worked on defense. In 1933, the group of study of the reactive movement (Gings) created and launched the first Soviet missiles. This group included the future creator of the world's first reactive weapons (Katyusha) A.G. Delochikov and the future chief designer of SP Korolev spacecraft. By this time, it is the beginning of the study by Soviet scientists of the stratosphere. In 1933, the first Soviet stratostat "USSR" rose to a height of 19 km. In 1934, the second stratostat "Osoaviaim-1" with the crew rose to a height of 22 km. The second space exploration ended in the death of the crew, but it did not stop scientific developments.

The special page in the scientific chronicles of the 1930s entered the Arctic researchers led by O. Y. SMIDT. In July 1933, he headed the scientific expedition through the Arctic Ocean on the Chelyuskin ship, which soon got into the ice compression and in February 1934 sank. In the distant Chukotka Sea on the drifting ice floe, the polar explorers created the Schmidt camp. Only in April they were removed from the ice floes. For heroism in the salvation of polar explorers, the Soviet government first assigned the title of Hero of the Soviet Union by pilots. In 1937, the study and development of the Arctic continued I.D. Papanin, E.T. Krenkel, E.K. Fedorsov, P.P. Shirshov. For 274 days, the fourth of polar explosions frightened on the ice floe in the ocean more than 2500 km. In the area of \u200b\u200bthe North Pole, reference meteo and radio stations were created. Thanks to them in 1937, the pilots V.P. Balov, P.Baydukov and A.V. Belyakov, for the first time in the shortest direct, made a non-repayment flight in the United States through a pole.

Soviet aircraft and the construction of the design of the all-metal aircraft A.N. Putuolev, etc. also reached significant success, but in the late 1930s, many scientists and including aircraft designers were arrested. Some of them continued their work in conclusion in special laboratories of the NKVD system.

In the field of social sciences, special importance was attached to the new reading of the history of the Communist Party. The work of historians carefully followed I.V.Stalin, who demanded the eradicated Trotskyist concepts in historical and party science. In 1938, edited by the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) with the participation of I.V. Stalin, "a brief course of the history of the WCP (b)" was published, which for many years has become the main reference point for social and political research. Erected in the dogma, "short course" became, in fact, the historical justification of the regime of personal power.

In 1937-1938 A scientific historical school of the died in 1932, M.N. Pokrovsky, was subjected to sharp criticism. His name was filmed from the name of the Moscow State University, which in 1940 assigned the name M.V. Lomonosov.

In the second half of the 1930s, the process of politicization and ideology of Soviet science was sharply intensified. In scientific discussions began to actively use political labels. Opponents often lost not only work in the specialty, but freedom and life. President Vaschnil N.I.Vavilov in 1935 was removed from the leadership of the Academy and soon arrested. The two subsequent presidents were shot, and Vaschnil headed by TDLSENKO, who promised Stalin to decide the grain problem by removing a branching wheat. The ideology and politicization of science disagreeably affected the development of scientific research in the USSR.

Literature and art

The figures of literature and art in the 1930s were to be guided by the decision of the Central Committee of the CPP (b) "On the restructuring of literary and art organizations" (1932). All unions of the creative intelligentsia were eliminated, the process of creating new uniform "sectoral" organizations of the republican and all-union scale began. In 1932, the Union of Soviet architects, the Union of Soviet Writers, Republican Unions of Soviet composers and artists were created. A major event in the cultural life of the country was the I congress of the Soviet writers, held in August 1934 and elected by the Chairman of the Board of the Union of Writers A.M. Gorky. Gorky, who finally returned to his homeland in 1931, became an active promoter of socialist realism, which was proclaimed by the main art method. He demanded to combine the historical specificity of the artistic image of reality with the upbringing of workers "in the spirit of socialism." I.V.Stalin considered social realism as the most important means of creating a Soviet culture - "national in the form of socialist content".

In 1936-1937. The struggle with formalism in literature and art has developed. Innovation in musical and theatrical art condemned; The development of the genres of satire, love lyrics, modern drama was not encouraged; Non-political topics collapsed. In books, films, plays, music dominated a military topic. This was due to the need for "moral weapons" of the people on the eve of the inevitable and close war. To deviate from the general line of the party in the literature and art was not easy, it is dangerous to criticize it.

Among the most important achievements of the Soviet literature of the 1930s are the novels "Life of Klim Samgin" A.M. Gorky, "Raised Tsina" M.A.Sholokhov, "How Steel" N.A. Oostrovsky, Peter First "A. N. Tolstoy, books for children A.P.Gaidar, K.I. Chukovsky, etc. The poetic creativity of A.A.Akhmatova, B.L.Pasternak, O.E. Martelstama continued. It should also be noted by Dramaturgia N.Pogodina, L. Lonov, Sun.visnevsky and others.

The largest phenomena in the musical life were the works of S.S.prokofieva (music for the film "Alexander Nevsky"), A.I. Khacaturyan (music for the movie "Masquerade"), D.D.Shostakovich (Opera "Lady Macbeth Mtsensky County", Forbidden in 1936 "for formalism"). The songs of I. Dunaevsky, A. Maleksandrov, V.Solovieva-gray, acquired wide popularity.

A significant step in its development made cinematography (films "Chapaev" S. and G. Vasilyev, "Deputy Baltic" I. Hayfiz and A.Zarhi, "Alexander Nevsky" S.Asenstein, Comedy of Алексаndrov "Merry guys" and "Circus ").

In painting, historical and revolutionary topics ("Death of the Commissioner" K. Petrov-Vodkina, "Defense Petrograd" A.Deneki, "Ternobachi of the First Horse Army" M.Greova, etc.), as well as a portrait genre (works M. Snesterov , P.KORIN, etc.). The most outstanding sculptural works of the 1930s was the monument of V.Mukhina "Worker and collective farmers".

Bibliography

1. The history of Russia from the beginning of the XIX to the beginning of the XXI century: a textbook for universities / ed. A.N. Sakharov. T. 2. M.: Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2005.

2. The history of Russia. IX-XX centuries. Course of lectures / ed. V.V. Levanova. - M.: Enlightenment, 2008.

3. History of Russia. Tutorial for independent work / Ed. L.I. Semennikova. - M.: Book House "University", 2006.

4. History of Russia: From the beginning of the XVIII century until the end of the 20th century / d. ed. A.N. Sakharov. - M.: AST, 2006.

5. The history of Russian and Soviet art. Under Red.D.V. Sarabihanova. Uch. Manual for students of universities, students in the specialty "History". - M., 1995.

6. The history of modern Russia. 1917 - 2004: course of lectures / Ed. IN AND. Belous. - N.Novgorod: NNU, 2007.

7. Kondakov I.V. The history of Russian culture. - M., 1994.

8. Kondakov I.V. Culture of Russia. - M., 1999.

9. Kravchenko A. I. Culturology. - M., 2001.

10.Kuznetsova T.F., Knaba G.S. Culturalology. The history of world culture. 2 ed. - M., 2006.

11. The latest history of the Fatherland. XX century. Tutorial in 2 tons / ed. A.F. Kiseleva, E.M. Schagin. - M.: Higher School, 2006.

12.Orzov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgiev N.G., Sivokhina TA Russian history. Tutorial. / A.S. Orlov, V.A.Gorgiev, N.G. Georgiev, T.A. Sivokhina.- M.: Prospect, LLC TK Velby, 2006.

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History and cultural studies [ed. Second, recreation. and add.] Shishova Natalia Vasilyevna

14.2. The formation of the Soviet system (1917th - 1930s)

General characteristics of the period

The process of the formation and approval of the Soviet system took place in difficult, constantly changing conditions that significantly influenced its forms, methods and pace. It can select several stages.

The most important events of the first stage (1917-1920) - the October Revolution, which unfolded in the conditions of the last World War I, and followed the bloody civil war, which lasted four years. Post-war recovery and socio-economic transformations in the 20s occurred against the background of the relative stabilization of the global economic and political system. However, a decade ended the hardest world economic crisis in 1929-1932. Thirty years - the period of forcing a social experiment in order to build socialism in our country. He passed under conditions when the fascist parties came in a number of European countries, who proclaimed the policy of the national revenge, when the international situation was sharply aggravated, the threat of a new world war became a reality.

In 1917, Russia experienced a revolutionary explosion of huge strength. According to a number of historians, he was not so much the natural result of the previous development of capitalist relations (as traditionally was considered in Soviet historiography), how many form of resolving the most acute socio-economic and political contradictions of Russian society. The imposition and intertwining of public contradictions requiring decisions, there is a "challenge" of history to which Russia was supposed to answer. Researchers believe that those who are contradictions caused by the lag of Russia from advanced, industrialized countries in the field of technology, labor productivity, armament of the army, the general culture of the population. That is, just those that made the urgent implementation of the generalization of the jerk. The country was tasked with industrialization, restructuring of the agricultural sector of the economy, to increase the overall level of culture of the population, democratization of public life, expanding the rights and freedoms of the individual. Russia has already begun to solve them, but the implementation of new trends prevented traditional public structures and relations.

The other group contradictions amounted to the specific internal disagreements of Russian society: between the peasants and landowners, workers and entrepreneurs, interethnic, between the center and the outskirts and others. Determining in this group was a gap between the autocracy form of the board and the interests of most of society.

Another group of contradictions was a consequence of world war. The increasing economic destruction, the threat of hunger, bitterness of losses and lesions, fatigue and disappointment in the war gave birth to protest in various layers of the population. It was these contradictions that were destined to play the role of the detonator of the revolutionary explosion.

Ideology. Political system

In 1917, Russia literally overwhelmed the wave of wide folk movements. The only party, which on the crest of this wave was able to not only rise to power, but also to keep it was the party of the Bolsheviks. It was this batch and that formed on its basis the ruling elite acted as an initiative, creative minority, who had to take over the task of permission of socio-economic and political contradictions.

What predetermined the Bolshevik victory in the struggle for power? First of all, they proposed a number of political slogans as their nearest programs, which reflected the vital, life interests of various social movements. The Bolsheviks promised the world by the exhausted war to the people, the land - peasants, the workers - workers, demanded the transfer of all the completeness of the authorities, which were representative bodies created by a democratic way.

Moreover, the Bolsheviks Party not only suggested political slogans that accurately took into account the alignment of the forces, but also carried out them immediately after the conquest of power. The first decrees of the Soviet Government - about the world, about the land, about working control, as well as the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia" provided it with the support of peasants, workers, front-line, representatives of national minorities. The Bolsheviks offered to society as the main goal and the main value orientation of the construction of a communist society - the society of social justice, where the oppression will be destroyed, human exploitation. Although their program contained only the most common, very brief description of the future device, the communist ideal was firmly established in the mass consciousness, became a generator of social optimism, a means of cohesion, mobilizing the masses. In other words, he connected, gathered in one unit at a certain stage of the elite and mass.

The question of why it happened is natural. The first to reflect on this topic were historians and philosophers of Russian abroad - L. Karsavin, N. Berdyaev, Fedotov, S. Frank, and others. Attracted this problem and the attention of historians in the post-Soviet Russia. According to the researchers proposed by the Bolsheviks, the public ideal coincided with the sustainable moral and ethical orientations of the national self-consciousness. For him, the search for truth and good, higher justice, faith in the possibility of a kind of kingdom of God on Earth arranged on the principles of fraternal love and understanding. As N. A. Berdyaev noted, "Communism included familiar features" of the spiritual ideal of a significant part of Russian society: "Thirst for social justice and equality, recognition of classes of workers by the highest human type, aversion to capitalism and bourgeoisie ...".

When developing policies in various fields, the Bolsheviks proceeded from the provisions of the Marxist theory. The ideological determination of the policies of the ruling party is one of the most important features of the Soviet society. It should be borne in mind that Marxism is a fairly controversial and complex scientific doctrine, whose assimilation involves a certain level of education, culture, requires great effort and time. All this has not yet been the overwhelming majority of not only the population of the country, but also members of the ruling party. Therefore, already in the 20s there was a tendency to compress the Marxist-Leninist theory into generalized formulations, having the nature of the official doctrine. This process ended in 1938 by the issuance of a brief "History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)", after which a special decree was adopted, who announced the book "Encyclopedia of the main knowledge in the field of Marxism-Leninism."

The main political process of the 20-30s is the formation of state institutions, power mechanisms of the Soviet system. The civil war showed the inconsistency of the Bolshevik idea of \u200b\u200bthe dictatorship of the people through the advice, since the difference between the nature of the Soviets, which reflected the opposite interests of various social groups. In the conditions of war and destroyed, only rigid centralization of management could correct the situation. The powers of the central executive authorities were consistently expanded, a large number of emergency bodies were created that carried out powerful powers besides tips.

In the 20s, the process of focusing the basic functions of public administration in the hands of the party-state apparatus was completed, a new ruling layer was formed - nomenclature. Nomenclature (from Lat. - List) is a list of the most important posts and posts in state, Soviet, economic and other bodies, candidates for which were previously considered and approved by party committees. The nomenclature is customary to be called and people who have given posts occupied and constituted a special social group with their interests, lifestyle, ideology, privileges.

At the same years, the elite change occurred in the right of the ruling party, the real power of old Bolsheviks passed into the hands of the nomenclature, which was formed primarily from the replenishment that came to the party during the civil war and after her end. Some of the society came from the bottom of the society and the power structures of social interlocks, cruelty. These people lacked experience, knowledge, education, general culture, so they all sought to compensate for the dedication of the party and enthusiasm. Gradually, the criterion of devotion is first the idea, and then people who personified it became the main ones in the selection and placement of personnel.

In the 30s, after the wave of mass repression, one of the main sources of replenishment of leadership has become a new "socialist" intelligentsia. The circumstances in which the nomination of this layer of Soviet leaders (young, energetic, but inexperienced) was put forward, put a deep imprint on their fate. The psychology of the promoters of the 30s is well disclosed in one of the novels of A. Beck "New Appointment". The hero of the novel was a man of this time: "Soldiers of the Party" - it was not for him empty words. Then, when another expression was included in the use, "Stalin's soldier", he proudly and, undoubtedly, considered himself with such a soldier ... " The main life commandment of this type of people has become mandatory and unconditional execution of orders. Soon after the October Revolution, the antidemocratic nature of the new government began to manifest. This was evidenced by the overclocking of the constituent assembly, deprivation of the political rights of individual populations, violation of the freedom of speech, press, the introduction of censorship and much more.

During the civil war, all parties except the Bolshevik were finally displaced from political life. In 1922-1923 A number of processes were held over the former political allies of the Bolsheviks - Mensheviks and the left ester, who were accused of crimes against Soviet power. The activities of these parties were banned. Thus, the creation of a one-party political system was completed.

Forcing socialist construction in the 30s on the basis of coercion, violent methods led to the tightening of the political regime in the country. A special place in the mechanism of power occupied punition-repressive organs (NKVD, NKGB, etc.), controlled only to Stalin. The country was overwhelmed by mass repressions. Processes over the old intelligentsia, specialists (the so-called "Shakhtinskiy case", "Academic business", the processes of the company, the labor peasant parties) complemented judicial and non-followers to the remnants of opposition party groups (L. Kamenev, Zinoviev, N. Bukharin, and . Rykov and others), party and military personnel. The peak of mass repressions fell on 1936-1938. Their main goal is to remove social tensions by identifying and punishing the "enemies", the suppression of any opposition sentiment in the embryos, ensuring the unconditional power of the center over the periphery. The number of political prisoners in the 30s exceeded 3 million people.

The elected authorities, democratic rights and freedoms, proclaimed by the Constitution of 1936, were formal. The real power was in the party-state apparatus, based on the social demagogue and the revolutionary enthusiasm of the masses, on the one hand, and on punish-repressive bodies on the other. The new government sought to control everything without exception of public life - economy, culture, social relations, spiritual life. The population of public life is the most important trend of the development of the Soviet political system in the 20s-30s, which makes it possible to characterize it as totalitarian.

Economy

In the field of economic relations, the Bolsheviks considered it necessary to liquidate private ownership of the means of production as a basis of operation, consumer money as a tool of class violence. They were supposed to replace common property, the organization of the Company by the type of Commune, the widespread self-government of the working people. According to a number of philosophers (S. Frank, N. Berdyaev), the appeals of the Bolsheviks to destroy private property were supported by millions because they corresponded to the deep aspirations of the national nature. The Russian people did not have a "disinterested faith in the holiness of the principle of ownership" (S. Frank). Russia was a country where big money did not cause unconditional respect, and it was necessary to earn the public recognition. According to the observation of M. Tsvetaeva, "the awareness of the increasing money in the Russian soul is indestructible."

Theoretical representations of the Bolsheviks determined the first steps in the economic region. In 1917-1920 Earth, thousands of industrial enterprises, banks, transport and communications, trade, residential foundation were nationalized. Thus, a powerful public sector was created in the economy. Very soon it became clear that in the conditions of war, acute lack of raw materials, fuel, workers, food, food is needed emergency measures to establish the work of the economy. The basis of the emerging control system was based on the principles of the monopolization of the produced product, the centralized distribution, the order (directive) method of control, coercion to work. Measures such as coagulation of money circulation, balance and distribution, cancellation of payment for heating, food, utilities, transport, consumer goods, created external, formal similarity with the communist society, which it seemed at that time. Hence the name of the economic policy of the period of the Civil War - Military Communism.

Gradually, the measures that the ruling party itself originally estimated as forced, began to be considered as optimal to move to communism. The party has a strong belief that the policies of military communism can be used and after the end of the war to restore the economy and the construction of socialism. However, attempts to preserve and strengthen military communist measures led to a sharp exacerbation of social tensions, caused a total crisis of the Soviet system. Special discontent, up to open resistance, caused the peasants from the peasants, the system of harvesting of agricultural products, which deprived them of interest in increasing production over the most necessary, since the "surplus" was withdrawn in favor of the state. It became clear that the revision of ways to overcome the crisis and progress towards socialism is necessary. These complex tasks were resolved in the framework of the new economic policy (NEP), which the party began to be held in 1921.

The new policy was based on the idea of \u200b\u200bassumptions of various forms of ownership in the country's economy, including private. The main ones in the management of the national economy were to become economic leverage, it was with their help that the freedom of trade was proclaimed instead of coagulation of commodity and money relations. The privacy was replaced by the OLD, which created the economic interest of peasants in restoring and expanding production.

The NEP was a cycle of consecutive activities to exit the crisis. They dictated with objective circumstances (as in due time military communism), but gradually began to be considered by Lenin and some other Bolshevik leaders as a possible program for constructing socialism by economic methods. However, by the end of the 20s, the situation has changed. 1927 became the year of "military alarm" caused by the complication of the USSR diplomatic relations with a number of countries in 1929-1932. The global economic crisis broke out. The leadership of the Communist Party came to the conclusion about the growth of the aggressiveness of imperialism, about the approach of the new strip of wars and revolutions. In this regard, the task was to strengthen the USSR as a base of the global revolution, to create a powerful military-political potential. This assumed the acceleration of the pace of socialist transformations and above all the implementation of the forced industrialization of the country.

The transition to a new political course - the offensive of socialism throughout the front - was due and maintained by a significant part of the ruling elite of the "military-communist" ideology - quickly, on the basis of enthusiasm, to introduce socialism to the assault. The year of "Great Fraz" became 1929. The new course in the economy included: coagulation of the NEP, the abolition of independent enterprises, the replacement of commodity and money relations between them with policy planning and public supply; significant expansion of capital investments in the industry while reducing investments in the social sphere; continuous collectivization based on the use of violent methods, a sharp increase in government billets based on coercion; Transition from predominantly economic to predominantly command, administrative management methods.

The result of the economic jerk of the 30s was the creation of a powerful industry capable of mastering the production of any degree of complexity, the opening of about 9 thousand industrial enterprises. In terms of industrial production, the country came out to the beginning of the 40s for second place in the world after the United States. However, the lag of our economy from the level of Western countries managed to overcome only in the basic sectors of the heavy industry, the development of which was paid to special attention, since they were the most advanced in that era (energy, metallurgy and mechanical engineering, the chemical industry) were the basis of the military-industrial complex and At the same time, the "industrializing industry" is a transfer mechanism of industrial technology to other sectors of the economy.

Forced industrialization loaded the country into a state of universal, as in war, mobilization and voltage, because plans, as a rule, were impracticable. Strengthening economic chaos and public disorder, they caused an increasing need for state leadership of the economic sphere, which replaced the laws of a market economy.

The administrative-command system, which has become the main means and the result of forced transformation of the 30s, contained deep contradictions, in it there were limited opportunities for economic development. Based on the execution of the orders of the center, she gasil and limited the initiative and independence of the manufacturers, did not create the conditions for their interest in production growth.

The end of the 20s-30s became time when the ruling party once again tried to realize his ideas about the socialist society, to completely abandon the use of economic levers (including money circulation) in organizing economic life, based on enthusiasm, glowing and Revolutionary misfortune of mass. However, every time it turned out to be impossible and had to retreat, to mitigate severe economic policies, to look for opportunities to stabilize the situation in industry and agriculture.

Social structure. Public consciousness

The approval of the political system, the transformation in the field of the economy was associated with complex processes occurring in the social sphere. At the end of the civil war, the Russian society was a society of broken public formations and connections. Social structure has radically changed. Human losses were huge - since 1914, they amounted to about 20 million people; More than 2 million people emigrated from Russia. There was a liquidation of the remains of exploitative classes - nobility, bourgeoisie, bourgeois, clergy, officers, bourgeois intelligentsia. The urban population decreased, the number of industrial workers in the leading industrial centers decreased 5-7 times, the process of declaring the proletariat began - the workers returned to the village to the peasant labor. White and red terror, devastation, hunger, epidemics took thousands of lives, gave rise to children's carelessness (in 1922 there were about 7 million homeless children), led to a sharp increase in crime. The society as a whole is tired of the war, shocks, needed a breather.

The transition to the new economic policy was approved in wide sections of the population. The peasantry was able to fulfill on their land. The restoration of industry and trade created new jobs. This policy was supported by a significant part of the intelligentsia, as it was calculated that the class of new owners would grow and intensify and strengthen the authority to abandon extremism in economics and politics and evolve in the direction of the formation of "normal" bourgeois-democratic orders. These moods were reflected in the collection of articles "Change of Vekh" (Prague, 1921), which gave the name of the whole course - "changeing."

However, there were social forces not interested in NEP in society. The Bolsheviks, seeking to destroy the old society and to clear the place to build a new one, turned to the lower, the most dark and uneducated layers of the working class and the peasantry. It seemed to them that the less these people are attached to the old, according to the definition of bourgeois culture, the easier and faster they will perceive new socialist ideals. Back in 1918, M. Gorky wrote that the Bolsheviks put forward "instigative slogans, awakening the lowest and dark instincts of the crowd." The consequence of this was the fact that the value orientations, moods, the vital aspirations of the lower social layers, the declassed elements began to play a significant role in society. The slogan of social justice was perceived by them as a call to the redistribution of public wealth, was transformed into their consciousness in the affordable and understandable - "Lost Grab". It is these social layers that have negatively treated the NEPU, which forced to put up with property differences. The townspeople were unhappy with the continuing unemployment, the increase in food prices, cancellation of cards. A significant part of the peasant poor has sought to improve its position on the basis of the principle: "take away and divide". Many could not calmly look at the expensive restaurants living in expensive restaurants: "For what fought in civil?!" These sentiments were also strong in the environment of party and Soviet workers. The transition to the forcing of socialist construction at the end of the 20s was close to the psychology of the backward layers of workers and peasants, inclined to assault methods, seeking faster, despite anything, break out of difficulties.

Since the late 20s and during the 30s, the social sphere is gaining momentum in the social sphere, which have not been associated with state or collective, cooperative property. Hard tax press and repressive measures led to the disappearance of the NEPman bourgeoisie (owners and tenants of small and medium-sized industrial enterprises, private traders). As a result of the policies of continuous collectivization and liquidation of fouls in the village disappeared the peasants and soles, a collective farm peasantry was formed. At the same time, the victims of repression became on different estimates from 5 to 7 million peasants and their families, about 5 million people died of hunger 1932-1933. In the grain areas of the country, which was a consequence of the use of emergency measures when carrying out bilbo groups.

In 1933, a passport system was introduced, but the collective farmers of the passport were not issued and they were actually attached to collective farms, not having the right to leave from the village without permission.

An extremely important process reflecting the structural changes in the Soviet society during this period was a sharp increase in the number of factory workers, urban population. So, for only the first five-year period, the number of workers increased from 2.7 to 12.4 million people. Since 1926 to 1939, the urban population increased by 30 million people. These changes in the social sphere testified to the transition from the company traditional to the industrial type.

The position of the intelligentsia remained difficult, the policy of the ruling party with respect to it was contradictory. On the one hand, the Soviet power in the conditions of unfolding industrialization needed specialists and sought to attract them to his side, using various means, and on the other hand, he fell in deep distrust. At the same time, the technical intelligentsia associated with production was declared more classically close proletariat than humanitarian. Such an approach led to emigration and forced expulsion from the country in the 20s of a large number of representatives of the creative intelligentsia.

In the 30s, policies in relation to the old intelligentsia tightened even more. A number of public processes took place over its representatives who were accused of hydration and help to class enemies. These processes allowed to assign responsibility for the intelligentsia for economic difficulties, disproportions and failures in the economy, resulting from the forcing of industrialization (i.e., withdraw responsibility for the country and party leadership). The old professionals had to be replaced with a new intelligentsia, which was formed due to immigrants from workers and peasants.

Forced industrialization, chaotic and non-planned growth of cities led to interruptions in supplying their food, exacerbation of a housing problem. The financial situation of the workers and their families has deteriorated, there has been a decrease in real wages. In many construction sites, the principle was enthusiastic: "First, the plant, then the city." Sharply aggravated the already huge, as they talked, "commodity hunger". Permanent interruptions in the supply of cities were forced to introduce a card system distribution of goods. In the second half of the 1930s, the position of the workers and peasants began to improve, but the actual life level of most urban layers was lower than the level of 1928. But even the temporary stabilization of the situation, some welfare growth contributed to the growth of enthusiasm, which was expressed, in particular, in the development of Stakhanov .

Under the influence of the indigenous changes in various spheres of society, a new type of person began to develop. In Soviet historiography, this process was considered as the process of improving the nature of a person, educating new qualities in it - collectivism, partnership, dedication, dedication to socialist ideals, the ability to subordinate personal interests with public. In the literature of recent years, the estimates have changed - the Soviet man lost his attractive qualities and acquired negative features: he is a slave, performer, his ideal - kojoy equality. Not so unequivocally assessed changes in the Russian national type, many philosophers and historians of Russian abroad, Western researchers.

Obviously, the type of personality of the Soviet person was formed under the influence of various factors. The experienced country of shocks, the accelerated industrialization and urbanization (the growth of cities) led to the fact that millions of people torn away from their native soils appeared in the country, forced to part with the usual rural way of life, master the new city life. People who are knocked out by virtue of various reasons from their social cells, who have lost contact with the traditional culture and the usual life, with difficulty got used to life in the city, rooted in a new place.

The rapid increase in the number of people associated with modern technician, industrial labor, significantly changed the sociocultural characteristics of society. Russian philosopher N. Berdyaev called the technique and technology of life by force, "having almost ospace for the fate of mankind." He emphasized that technogenic civilization turns a person into the image and similarity of the machine, leads to the disintegration of the person on certain functions, the leveling of the personal, individual start in man, facilitating the possibilities to manipulate them. Moreover, these processes do not depend on the social system, are a natural consequence of the transition to industrial and urban society.

One of the most important factors for the formation of a special type of personality of the Soviet person was the official ideology, which argued in society a new system of values, moral and ethical installations. She claimed universality, to the incarnation of truth and historical justice, while the ideals proclaimed it should have been taken to faith, and their implementation was related to the area of \u200b\u200bthe future. In addition, a radical reorganization of society and a person necessary for the implementation of socialist ideals is supposed to be implemented using violence. In a new value system, human individuality was valued low, everyone had to feel primarily a member of the construction of a new society, ready to sacrifice all for the sake of common cause. However, recognizing the significance of the official ideology in the life of the Soviet society, it is impossible to disagree with those researchers (A. Gurevich, I. Kondakov) who believe that in society mainly the sides of the ideology that find themselves in cultural archetypes, in the mentality of the people , Processing in accordance with them.

At one time, N. Berdyaev, G. Fedotov, N. Lossky wrote that the striking difference between the Soviet person from Russian - apparent. So, according to Fedotov, the revolution destroyed only the upper historical reservoirs in the Russian man, formed in the XVIII-XIX centuries, led to a Moscow type celebration: "The age-old habit of obedience, the weak development of personal consciousness, the need for freedom, ease of life in the team," in service and cray "- that's what the Soviet man with old Moscow is". The transfer of the capital to Moscow may be considered as an act of symbolic. Worked on a Russian man and Soviet power - thanks to her he learned "Surface, narrowed content of modern civilization - military-sports life, Marxism, Darwinism and equipment".

Despite all the difficulties, the scale of socio-economic transformation of the 30s gave birth to the feelings of optimism, the relationship of the Great Epoch. The generation of people who grew up under Soviet power, sincerely devoted to her and ready to protect it with weapons in their hands. They believed that in our country the most progressive and fair social system is being created. In the diary of the Rudnev, Moscow schoolgirl, during the war years - the pilots, you can read the following lines written in 1937: "You find the only reflection in the newspapers when you read about us, about the USSR - my wonderful homeland. Today, exactly the year from the day, when Comrade Stalin did a report on the draft Constitution, after 10 days - the day of the Constitution, after 17 days - elections to the Supreme Council of the USSR. All the raised mood ... I live full-blooded life. And how can I not love my homeland, which gives me such a happy life?! "

At the same time, there were such features of public consciousness and behavior, such as the refusal of independence in decision-making, blind subordination of orders, fear of responsibility, the folding of the psychology of the "human-screw" in the state mechanism, the fall of the Creative Initiative, Fear and suspicion.

For Soviet societies were characterized by the readiness to take the desired for the real, denial of criticism and doubts in the superiority of its own model of development. Public consciousness perceived and evaluated the past and present through the prism of tough dual categories. The division of the world on "their" and "strangers", on friends and enemies oriented, targeted society to fight. "We" are the first and only country of socialism, "they" - a hostile capitalist environment, the clash of these two worlds is inevitable. The typical image of the USSR is given in one of the performances of Stalin those years: "Among the raging waves of economic shocks and military-political catastrophes of the USSR, it stands separately as a cliff, continuing to the case of socialist construction, the struggle for the preservation of the world". Very precisely, this specificity of public consciousness is reflected in the poetic lines:

... I remember, did not regret the holiday

Nor black carcass, neither Belil

The whole world on white and on the red

Unconditionally divided.

... I knew about the domain of the priazia

And that again Bastuet Rome.

And I fought love to friends

And it was not accepting to enemies!

E. Vinokurov. From poems about childhood

The psychology of life in a deposited fortress, waiting for war, the need to be vigilant surrounded by numerous external and internal enemies firmly entered the consciousness of the pre-war society.

Culture

In the 20s of the 20s, complex and contradictory processes occurred in the field of culture. The element of destruction caused by the revolution to life caused a tangible blow to the Orthodox culture, the culture of the Russian province, manor culture. At the same time, the revolution could not extinguish the creative energy of Russian cultural revival overnight. It is his impulses that the appearance of many new features, scientific schools in sociology, psychology, pedagogy, natural sciences is explained in the early 20s of the 20s.

Despite the civil war, folklore and ethnographic expeditions were organized, new museums were created, publishing houses. One of the most famous - the publishing house "World Literature", which conducted a great educational work. His editorial board included M. Gorky, A. Blok, N. Gumilev, E. Zamyatin, K. Chukovsky. A lot of literary circles and studios appeared, in which people from various social layers were engaged, they led them known writers, such as V. Khodasevich, A. White. A wide scale has acquired amateur theatrical movement.

Thus, in the revolution, both destructive and creative power were manifested simultaneously. The dominance of destructive trends was explained not only by the fact that the revolution itself is intended primarily to destroy, but also in active actions, for the most part, not cultural, capable of positive work, and the most undeveloped and dark ones were involved. As these forces were increasingly approved in the state, they were subsidence to themselves and that element of creative energy, which made his way at the initial stage of the revolution.

An important place in the cultural life of the 20s was taken by discussions about the attitude towards the cultural heritage of the past and how new culture should be. Proponents of the left currents were considered necessary to abandon the bourgeois culture, break with the past, to create something completely new outside of historical and cultural traditions. In 1917, the "Proletarian culture" was formed (breaking), whose members were opponents of the old culture and advocated the creation of a new one, insisting that it was a purely proletarian, that is, should be addressed to the proletariat and are created only by proletarian artists and writers.

In addition, representatives of the avant-garde believed that art is a means of transforming the social reality and education of a new person. The most important position of their aesthetic system: art is not only a way to reflect the real world, real reality, but also means of its conversion, changes. The term "Social Engineering" was introduced by a prominent leader of PRAletted A. Gastev. With regard to art, he meant a radical restructuring with its means of not only social life, but also the psyche of man. One of the leaders of the Left Front group (LEF), Futurist C. Tretyakov, wrote that "The worker of art should be a psycho-engineer, psycho-designer ...".

The idea of \u200b\u200b"forging a new person" by means of literature and art was one of the central in the discussions of the creative intelligentsia of the 20s, it was divided by representatives of various flows of the Russian avant-garde. The search for new expressive forms to solve this problem in the literature were occupied by the LEF, which included V. Mayakovsky, D. Burluk, O. Bric, in the theater - Sun. Meyerhold, in architecture - K. Melnikov, in the cinema - S. Eisenstein, Kozintsev and many others. In the visual art, left currents were presented: the Society of Stankovists (OST), the group "4 arts" (K. Petrov-Vodkin, P. Kuznetsov), the society of Moscow artists (OMX) (P. Konchalovsky, I. Mashkov, A. Lentulov, R. Falk), constructivists (V. Tatlin, L. Lisitsky), etc.

Supporters of the left currents due to their revolutionary nature were in the center of the social explosion, the first began to cooperate with the new power, seeing his relationship to them. They took part in the implementation of the monumental propaganda plan, were engaged in the "revolutionary" design of cities. M. Shagal, one of the "founding fathers" of contemporary art, and during the revolution - the Commissioner of the Commissar Commission, later wrote about this time: "... Lenin turned Russia upside down in the same way as I do in my paintings".

The fundamental concept of creating a new man became the main task of Soviet culture. However, on the issue of expressive means and forms of the new culture, the ruling party made a choice in favor of traditionalism and realism, a policy maker forboving experiments in this area (Decision of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) "On the restructuring of literary and art organizations" of April 23, 1932) and Announces socialist realism with a single and mandatory artistic method for Soviet literature and art. This choice was made to a large extent in connection with the conviction of the Bolsheviks in the fact that the new culture, which will have to contact the insufficiently educated and cultural segments of the population, must use the most familiar and understandable for these social layers of form.

In the charter of the Union of Soviet writers created in 1934, the basic principles of the new method were formulated, it was indicated that he "Requires the artist of the truthful historically specific image of reality in its revolutionary development. At the same time, the truthfulness and historical specificity of the artistic image of reality should be combined with the task of ideological alterations and the upbringing of workers in the spirit of socialism ".

One of the main tasks of Soviet art was the creation of an image of a positive hero, an active converter of life, a selflessly loyal party and the state, which should be equal to all Soviet people, especially young people. A distinctive feature of art was social optimism. They are permeated by the novels M. Sholokhov, L. Leonova, V. Kataeva, N. Ostrovsky, the films "Chapaev" S. and G. Vasiliev, "Earth" A. Dovzhenko, "Deputy Baltic" I. Heifitsa and A. Zarkha, " Komsomolsk "S. Gerasimov, a trilogy about Maxim G. Kozintseva, etc.

The most talented works of those years reflected the preserved inertia of the revolutionary lift, the romantic vision of the events of revolution and civil war, the enthusiasm of the creators of the new society, sincerely believe in the possibility of their dreams.

In the 30s, artistic culture became more and more canonical, it approved the strict hierarchy of genres and those. She frankly focused on the "social order" of the ruling elite. For example, paying great attention to the show of the events of revolution and civil war, creating images of leaders, artists, writers, filmmakers often consciously created paintings and images that had little to do with real reality. So, in official portraits of Stalin, the disadvantages of his physical appearance disappeared - the audience was not a living, real person, but a symbol, personification of idea. At the same time, a domestic history was subjected to substantial transformation in the literature and art.

The transformation on the basis of ideological installations was subject to not only the past, but also the future. So, which appeared in the 30s as an answer to the growth of the military threat "Defense Literature", "Defense Cinema" were depicted in full compliance with the official forecasts of the future war as a dashing hike, as an instant victory over the enemy without victims and difficulties. For example, the hero of the film "Tankists" was sent to intelligence, but exceeded the task - began military operations, reached Berlin and captured Hitler. After the start of the war, one of the heads of the Union of Writers A. Surkov was forced to admit that "... before wars, we often disoriented the reader about the genuine nature of future tests. We greatly portrayed the war. I do not want to offend anyone, but the slogans "and in the water we. We do not drown, and in the fire we do not burn, "" Kiphenaya, Mighty, Nobody invincible ... "cultivated thoughtless self-confidence ... Before the war, we filed the reader to the war in a motley candy wrapper, and when this candy wrapper turned on June 22, the scorpion came out from it, which It hurts us at heart, - the scorpion of the reality of a difficult, big war ".

The specificity of the mass audience of the 30s (first of all the low level of education and culture) not only determined its interest in the most understandable and affordable forms of cultural life (especially for cinema), but also made them extremely effective. B. Babocha, analyzing the success of the film "Chapaev", wrote that for the audience of the 1930s, the directness of the film's perception, "Full faith in authenticity, the primacy of the events occurring approached to its absolute, to its hundred percents". Visual on-screen images, like the heroes of literature, are firmly included in the consciousness of people, perceived with them with great confidence. The possibilities of art were actively used by the ruling elite to create a myth about the happy life of the people building socialism to manipulate public consciousness.

The main criterion for assessing works of culture in the 30s was their compliance with official ideology. With cultural figures, whose works did not meet the strict requirements of "socialist realism", was carried out by an irreconcilable struggle. So, in the second half of the 1930s, a campaign was carried out for overcoming in the art of "formalism" and "naturalism". D. Shostakovich, S. Eisenstein, N. Zabolotsky, J. Olesha, I. Babel were accused of formalism. Artists A. Lentulov and D. Stersenberg were named "Pachkunov with malicious intentions."

The most important feature of the Soviet culture was the strict control over it from the party and the state. Already in the 20s, cultural institutions were nationalized, the management system began to develop, which existed until the 90s. In 1922-1923 The chief and the chief executive committee, which followed compliance with the censorship requirements in the press and the repertoire of theaters and cinemas.

Party and state control over the various spheres of cultural life in the 1930s increased even more. Then the creative unions were created, beyond which the work of cultural figures was impossible, as well as a number of special bodies who carried out the centralized leadership of the culture: the All-Union Committee on Radio Broadcasting, the Committee on Arts, the General Directorate of Cinematography, the All-Union Committee on Higher School, and others.

In relation to the cultural heritage, the principle of "mastering" was proclaimed, that is, was recognized as the need for cultural continuity, conservation of tradition. However, under mastering it was meant to rethink, the reassessment of the spiritual heritage of the past at an angle of view of the class interests of the proletariat. All the culture was divided into progressive and reactive, which could have been discarded. As a result, for a number of generations of Soviet people, literature, art, philosophy of the beginning of the XX century. remained unknown, since they were assessed as fallen and decadent.

In the 30s, a pragmatic, utilitarian approach to culture intensified, its development was directly linked to the solution of current economic tasks. In the conditions of forced industrialization, a quick preparation of a sufficient number of employees with the necessary knowledge and skills was recognized as one of the most important tasks of the cultural revolution. If on the eve of the October Revolution, three-quarters of the adult population of Russia were not able to read or write, then by the mid-1930s, the overwhelming part of the adult population became competent. During this period, not only the initial, but also the middle and higher school was rapidly developed. As in other areas of culture, a class approach was consistent in the education system. The predominant right of admission to universities used the people from workers and peasants, the reception of "socially alien elements" was limited.

An analysis of the sociocultural processes of this period shows that the Soviet culture was formed as the culture of the city, industrial. In this capacity, she opposed not only the culture of bourgeois, but also the culture of the peasant. In essence, it was a mass culture. It is closely intertwined by processes inherent in the culture of the Epoch of industrial revolutions, and specific, due to the originality of the development of the Soviet society. First of all, the democratization of culture and education, the emergence and dissemination of new art types, based on the use of technical means (radio, cinema), should be taken first, thanks to which cultural achievements have become available to the widest segments of the population, the formation of a mass culture.

The specifics of Soviet culture became its deep ideology, the policy approval of a single artistic method (the unification of culture), the restriction of freedom of creativity, the loss of a significant part of the cultural heritage, annihilation (destruction) of cultural traditions, the construction of mass culture in the rank of official, utilitarian attitude to it, isolation, disordering from world culture.