In the middle of the 20th century, scientists studying our language saw that in addition to the huge number of words that make up the language, there is also a special layer - several tens of thousands of stable combinations of words, which, like words, help us build speech. Moreover, the speech is figurative, bright, and capacious.

The existence of such expressions was known before. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov also said that they need to be included in dictionaries. He called them “Russian proverbs”, “phrases”, “idioms”. The latter term is derived from the Greek word idioma, which means “originality.”

Scientists have understood: there are many such stable combinations, they create a special “tier” in the language and require a special systematic approach to study.

The discovery brought this material to the attention of many scientists. A new branch of the science of language was born - phraseology.

A phraseological unit or phraseological unit is a phrase that is stable in composition and structure, lexically indivisible and integral in meaning, performing the function of a separate lexeme (dictionary unit).

Phraseologism can be replaced with one word, for example: hack on the nose - remember; like looking into the water - foreseeing. The lexical meaning of a phraseological unit is close to the lexical meaning of one word.

Like a word, a phraseological unit can have synonyms and antonyms, for example, the phraseological unit grated kalach (meaning “experienced person”) has a phraseological unit synonymous with shot sparrow; the phraseological unit has a lot of edges (in the meaning of “many”) there is an antonym phraseological unit one or two and miscalculated (in the meaning of “few”).

Most of the phraseological units reflect the history of Russia, the customs of their ancestors, their work, for example, the expression to beat the thumbs in the meaning of “do nothing” arose on the basis of the direct meaning of “split a block of wood into thumbs (chocks) to make spoons and ladle out of them,” i.e. to make a simple, easy task.

Many phraseological units were born from songs, fairy tales, parables, proverbs of the Russian people, for example: good fellow, shedding burning tears, rivers of milk.

Some phraseological units are related to professional speech: in an hour, a teaspoon - from medical vocabulary; to leave the stage - from the speech of the artists. Phraseologisms/and appeared in the process of borrowing. Everyone knows borrowed phraseological units from the Bible, for example: the prodigal son, Balaam’s donkey. Many phraseological units come from ancient Greek and Roman mythology: Achilles' heel, Procrustean bed. Many quotes and popular words from foreign classical literature have become phraseological units, for example: to be or not to be (from W. Shakespeare’s tragedy “Hamlet”).

Phraseologism characterizes all aspects of a person’s life: attitude to work (golden hands, kick ass); attitude towards other people (bosom friend, disservice); personal strengths and weaknesses (lead by the nose, turn up your nose, don’t lose your head).

In a sentence, a phraseological unit is one member: subject, predicate, object or circumstance - depending on which part of speech it can be replaced, for example, in the sentence The guys are working with their sleeves rolled up, the phraseological unit with their sleeves rolled up can be replaced with the adverb well (diligently). Consequently, this phraseological unit will serve as an adverbial circumstance of the course of action.

Phraseologisms are found in texts of artistic style: in Russian folklore as proverbs, sayings, winged words (there is no truth in the legs), in the sayings of literary heroes (dotting the i; the golden mean), in aphoristic phrases (the legend is fresh, but hard to believe - from A. Griboyedov’s comedy “Woe from Wit”), in turns of colloquial speech (in full Ivanovskaya, with Gulkin’s nose).

Phraseologisms give speech imagery, expressiveness, make it richer and more beautiful.

PHRASEOLOGY AS A SECTION OF THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE

In addition to individual words with independent meanings, from which we make up phrases and sentences in speech, the Russian language also has more complex linguistic units that express certain thoughts figuratively, emotionally, while bearing the imprint of a unique national flavor. Such units are called phraseological units. Since ancient times, the Russian people have used not only words, but also phraseological units to designate objects, signs, properties, actions, qualities, and quantities. Consequently, the nominative structure of the language consists of lexemes and phraseological units that are capable of expressing: the concept of an object: a craftsman - golden hands, an aristocrat - blue blood, a characteristic feature of something - a business card; concept of a sign: random - the first one that came across, abandoned - forgotten by God, outstanding - out of the ordinary; concept of action: to slander someone - to hang dogs (on someone), to get irritated - to lose one's temper, to worry someone - to touch the soul (of someone); concept of the quality of action: quickly - headlong, surprised - open-mouthed, in vain - to no avail; the concept of quantity: a little - as big as a nose, a lot - up to your neck.

The phraseological composition of the language, while inferior in quantitative terms to the lexical one, is nevertheless huge and includes tens of thousands of units. They are studied by phraseology (from the Greek phrasis - expression and logos - teaching) - the science of the phraseological composition of a language. The units themselves are called phraseological units.

By phraseological unit we will understand a combination of two or more words that express the concept of something and are correlated with a word or combination of words in meaning and grammatical characteristics.

The foundations of phraseology were laid by the works of V.V. Vinogradov in the 40s. From this time on, a systematic study of phraseological material began, and phraseology itself turned into a complex, branched science. Modern scientists - phraseologists are engaged in the study of the meaning, grammatical features of phraseological units, their functioning in speech. Thanks to the efforts of entire scientific schools, a phraseological grammar is being created, which is inextricably linked with the lexical one.

III. PHRASEOLOGIST AND ITS SIGNS.

The difference between phraseological units and free words and phrases.

Phraseologisms and words form the nominative structure of the language. They have independent meaning; in speech they act as independent members of a sentence. But at the same time, phraseological units are only correlative with the word and have their own distinctive features. The first distinguishing feature of phraseological units from words is that they always represent a separately formed unit, that is, they consist of two or more words. According to their structure, phraseological units are divided into 4 types of models: the model of word combinations - the combination of significant parts of speech with auxiliary ones: straight away, indiscriminately, without blinking; model of phrases - phraseological units constructed in accordance with the rules of coordination, control, adjacency: to the point of white heat, hang your nose, cornerstone; model of a simple sentence - it smells bad, it’s not worth spitting, it’s full of health; model of a part of a complex sentence - how it grew out of the ground, like its own ears.

The second feature of phraseological units is the stability of the component composition: words cannot be arbitrarily replaced in them, because as part of a phraseological unit they lose their lexical independence and serve as components in the phraseological meaning.

Thus, the verbs beat, break, cut outside phraseological units denote specific physical activity aimed at an object with the purpose of changing it: hitting glass, breaking a stick, cutting bread. In phraseological units, the named verbs lose their meaning.

Let's compare: to beat one's head - to sit back, to rack one's head (over something) - to think hard, to cut one's soul (to someone) - to torment someone. Phraseologisms no longer denote specific physical activity. They have the meaning of abstract activity - behavior, intellectual activity, emotional impact on someone.

Nouns, becoming a component of procedural phraseology, also change qualitatively. As a rule, from their lexical meaning they retain nuclear (basic) semes, while losing their class categorical meaning of the subject.

For example, baklushi is outdated. “wooden block for playing town.” From the point of view of people who are busy with business, thrashing around, that is, knocking down towns, is empty fun, a waste of time. Thus, the noun baklushi introduces the nuclear seme of its meaning into the phraseology - “idleness”.

Similar processes occur with the nouns head, soul. They also introduce nuclear semes of their meaning: head - “mind, consciousness, reason”; soul – “the inner mental world of a person.” Since all units with the given nominal components denote activity, we can conclude that nouns in phraseological units lose their most general, categorical meaning of the subject.

So, we have come to the definition of the term component of a phraseological unit.

A component of a phraseological unit is a word, significant or auxiliary, the meaning of which has undergone a number of qualitative changes. Therefore, the component of a phraseological unit cannot act as an independent designation or a member of a sentence.

The third property of a phraseological unit is the integrity of meaning. As we have already said, words as part of a phraseological unit lose their independence, retaining only individual semes that are combined into one whole - phraseological meaning. A phraseological unit always denotes one concept, and often, although not always, its meaning can be conveyed in one word: white flies - snow, make a promise (to whom, about what) - promise something to someone, roll up your sleeves - diligently. Phraseologisms, unlike phrases, are not created by the speaker, but are reproduced in finished form.

Let's compare: The child screamed even louder. The nanny, waving her hand, came up to him, took him from the hands of the nurse and began to rock him as she walked (L.N. Tolstoy Anna Karenina). Then he went to Kyiv and, giving up on business, spent three days drunk and joyfully excited (I. A. Bunin. Village). In the first sentence, the phrase waving your hand can be changed (by waving your head, handkerchief, etc.), since the lexemes retain their independence and can be used separately from each other. In the second sentence, such a change is impossible, since the phraseological unit in the adverbial form having given up (at what) has the integral meaning of “having stopped doing something,” and the lexemes, having become components of the phraseological unit, have lost their independence.

Features of the meaning of phraseological units.

Of particular importance is the study of phraseology for improving a person’s speech skills and improving speech culture. The accuracy, picturesqueness and imagery with which a phraseological unit can characterize a phenomenon attracts many. As we have already noted, phraseological units are only correlative with lexemes, but not identical to them. How is it shown?

Firstly, phraseological units always have a broader meaning than a single lexeme: blue blood - “all aristocrats”, seasoned - “experienced, experienced a lot” or “old”, raise (someone) to their feet - “bring to independence someone”, carelessly – “carelessly, with a low degree of quality”, in three streams – “strongly, bitterly”.

The second feature of the meaning of a phraseological unit is its complexity. This is due to the separate design of the phraseological unit: each component of the phraseological unit contributes its own semes to its overall meaning. Thus, a phraseological unit that missed the target has the meaning of “not achieving the desired result.” All its components participate in the formation of the holistic meaning of a phraseological unit: the verb to beat contributes the most general seme of the process; the noun goal retains the subcategorical seme of abstraction and the nuclear semes of its meaning “what they strive for, what they want to achieve”; the preposition by introduces into the phraseological unit semes of spatial meaning “without achieving something, without getting closer to anyone or anything.” This is how the holistic meaning of a phraseological unit is formed, which is a complex structure.

The third distinctive feature of the meaning of a phraseological unit is its abstractness. Thus, phraseological units with a quantitative meaning never denote a pure quantity, a specific number, and this is fundamentally different from numerals: the cat cried, there was only so much left, to count on one’s fingers – “not enough”; for the eyes, more than enough, even a dime a dozen - “a lot.” Phraseologisms, as a rule, denote abstract concepts, processes, qualities, signs: daily bread - “the most important, essential, vital”; taken together - “mentally united”, bear your cross - “patiently carry out difficult duties”, without a hitch - “masterfully, carefully, accurately.”

The next feature of the meaning of phraseological units is connotation (emotionality, expressiveness, evaluativeness). As a rule, a phraseological unit not only names a person, a concept, a sign, an action, but contains an assessment: muslin young lady - “a cutesy girl with a bourgeois outlook, not adapted to life”; in bad standing – “possessing, in the opinion of others, low moral and professional qualities”; warm your hands (on what) - “it’s dishonest, it’s illegal to profit from something”; reluctantly - “reluctantly”.

And one more feature of the meaning of a phraseological unit is anthropocentricity, focus on a person. Almost all phraseological units of the Russian language are anthropocentric, that is, they characterize a person or talk about something from a person’s point of view.

IV. DIFFICULTIES IN USING PHRASEOLOGISTS

The main difficulties in using phraseological units in speech are associated with several reasons. The first reason is the peculiarity of the form of phraseology. A phraseological unit, as a rule, has a stable component composition, and therefore does not allow the replacement of one component with another. In the vast majority of phraseological units of the Russian language, it is impossible to replace components, since changing the component composition will lead to their destruction: tighten the screws, wash your hands, come to mind (to whom), etc.

Often mistakes are made in the use of such phraseological units as play a role (in what), matter (for whom), play the first violin (in what), while the court and the case. But some phraseological units may allow options, that is, the replacement of one component with another, for example: in (one, single) blink of an eye (apple of the eye), in (one) second, to the very (very) coffin (coffinboard, grave) . Variation in the component composition of a phraseological unit is an indicator of its further development. Variation is understood as a linguistic process in which an external modification of the structure of a linguistic unit does not lead to a violation of its semantic identity. Variation can be word-formative - this minute (just a minute); lexical – one fine day (morning, evening); morphological – without year week(s); quantitative - in (one) blink of an eye.

The second reason for numerous speech errors is ignorance of the meaning of phraseological units. Often phraseological units are understood in their literal meaning, which is a mistake. It must be remembered that the named units always have a figurative meaning. Thus, the phraseological unit “heavy artillery” means a slow, clumsy person, the unit “to give up” means “to die,” and to tease geese means “to cause anger, to irritate.” Errors may be associated with changes in the meaning of phraseological units. For example, in the novel Goncharov brings to light the divine image of Oblomov.” In the above sentence, the phraseological unit meaning “to make a fact, an unseemly act generally known” is used incorrectly - in the meaning of “to create something”.

The next reason for speech errors is ignorance of the peculiarities of the meaning of phraseological units. As we have already said, most phraseological units have pronounced emotionality, evaluativeness, and expressiveness. Such phraseological units as the wind in your pockets, your hands don’t reach (to whom, what), to shut your mouth (to whom), hit from around the corner with a bag belong to the colloquial style and cannot be used in business or scientific speech. Other phraseological units, for example, make a decision, win (over whom), come to a conclusion (about what) belong to the book style.

Phraseologisms can have synonyms. For example, a synonymous series of phraseological units: beat your thumbs, bask in the rays (of what), sit still, sit with folded hands, give up your hands characterize a lazy, inactive person. It is easy to notice that each unit has its own semantic connotations: to be lazy - to mess around, to spend time idly; bask in the rays of (what) - be content with what has been achieved, sit still - lead an inactive, sedentary lifestyle, sit back - do nothing, do nothing, give up - resign yourself, stop opposing something. Therefore, the speaker is faced with the task of choosing from a synonymous range of linguistic units the necessary one, the most suitable for a given speech situation. Reference books on phraseology can help you with this. Such information is given in the “Russian Phraseological Dictionary” by V. P. Felitsina, V. M. Mokienko (M: EKSMO-PRESS, 1999), in the textbook “Russian Man in the Mirror of Phraseology: Ideographic Description” by E. V. Radchenko (Ed. -in SUSU, 2004).

The sentence usually uses one of the phraseological units of the synonymous series, the most suitable in meaning: After greeting, dad said that he would beat us in the village, that we had stopped being little and that it was time for us to study seriously (L.N. Tolstoy. Childhood).

Phraseologisms can be used in the same syntactic row with free lexemes. It is characteristic of phraseological units that they, as a rule, complete a syntactic sequence. This is primarily due to the complexity, breadth, imagery and evaluative meaning of the phraseological unit: This feeling of the Motherland, trampled, mutilated, almost reduced to nothing, rises and straightens in the souls of boys and girls (Soviet Russia. October 22, 1988). In the above sentence, the phraseological unit nullified has a more complex meaning compared to the participial forms outside the phraseological unit trampled, mutilated. Therefore, the definition expressed by the named phraseological unit is in a post-position in relation to previous definitions, introducing the semes “devoid of meaning, value, meaning.”

Errors in the use of phraseological units are often associated with ignorance of its compatibility with other lexemes. Thus, the unit Achilles heel in the meaning of “the weak side of whom, what” can only be used in the singular form and combined with animate and inanimate nouns (Achilles heel - housing construction, hockey, teachers). Another phraseological unit long arms “great opportunities for someone to implement their plans” has only a plural form and is combined in speech only with proper nouns denoting a person or with personal pronouns in the genitive case (Ivanov has long arms, he has long arms) .

Errors in learning the meaning of phraseological units:

1) Literal understanding. The danger of literal understanding exists for those phraseological units that have reduced their real prototypes in their language in the form of free combinations of words. Cases of literal understanding are especially common in the early stages of speech acquisition. Phraseologism, as it were, ceases to exist as a separate lexical unit and functions as a free association of words that retain their own lexical meanings. In the essay of one eighth-grader there was, for example, the following phrase: “Tatyana’s mother herself, in her free time, shaved the foreheads of her peasants,” the meaning of the phraseological unit “to shave foreheads” means to take as a soldier.”

2) Changing the value. In the speech of schoolchildren, it is common to change the meaning of a phraseological unit, for example: “Molchalin is leading everyone in the house by the nose.” in standard language, the phraseological unit used has the meaning ““to deceive, mislead”’. The meaning of the phraseological unit in this case is incorrectly expanded. The seventh-grader incorrectly used the phraseological unit “throwing pearls before swine,” which in modern language means “it is in vain to talk about something to someone who is not able to understand it.” In the essay it is used in the sense of “to invent, weave fables, deceive”: “” Listakov always casts pearls before swine, and everyone believes him “”. There are also mistakes in oral speech: “I need him like a bath leaf.”

3) Identical components. Phraseologisms that contain the same components are mixed, for example: “” in extreme cases “” and “” at least: “” I think that in extreme cases I will get a four for this essay “”. ""To all intents and purposes"," "We will discuss this to all intents and purposes and decide that it is better to leave Natasha as head girl." Sometimes phraseological units that have an accidental sound similarity are mixed, for example: "" neither gu-gu" and "" nor boom-boom": "" I'm not a gu-gu in this algebra."

Errors in mastering the form of phraseological units:

With a correct understanding of the meaning of a phraseological unit, its form in children's speech can be subject to restructuring and modification. Two types of such modification can be distinguished: grammatical and lexical.

1) Grammatical modification. Examples of grammatical modification of phraseological units are extremely diverse. It may consist in the fact that the form of the number of the noun that is part of the phraseological unit changes: "" He knows how to take the bulls by the horns "," "Don't take bad examples from anyone." the use of the plural form is associated with the desire to emphasize the repetition of the depicted situation. There are widespread cases of eliminating species inconsistency, while phraseological units, which in normative language are used exclusively in the form of one type, receive in children's speech the form of the opposite type: "" He, as before, raked in the heat with someone else's hands "." A number of verbal phraseological units are used in the form only of the present tense; in the speech of schoolchildren, cases of their use in others are possible: “I scolded her at all costs,” “always knew where the wind was blowing.” The only thing that is common is that each time the form is used, perhaps from the point of view of the language system, while the norm protects the inviolability of the phraseological unit: ““It’s cheaper than a steamed turnip.” – Let’s compare “cheaper than steamed turnips”. ""When she got into Kabanikha's house, she does not find a place for herself" - comparison ""does not find a place for herself"." A special case of modifying a phraseological unit is the elimination of grammatical archaisms. For example, in the speech of schoolchildren there are numerous cases of “modernizing” gerunds: “I can’t stand sitting with my hands folded.” – comparison of “hands folded”. Also “headlong” and headlong, “headlong” and headlong. Some phraseological units use inflected forms of short adjectives, which in children's speech can be replaced by full forms: “in broad daylight,” “on bare feet,” and the like, for example: ““She was wearing shoes on bare feet.” .

2) Lexical modification. Lexical modification of a phraseological unit. Most phraseological units have the property of impenetrability: it is impossible to introduce an additional component into their composition. However, in the students’ speech there are such cases: “After all, not all girls can give a good, strong rebuff.” – comparison “fight back”; “He won’t forget this until his grave,” and the like.

There are also cases where a component of a phraseological unit is omitted: “It was just right for him to hit the wall” - a comparison of ““beating his head against the wall”” and the like.

The mistake may also lie in replacing the components of a phraseological unit: ““The mayor said that he knows who is throwing pebbles at him”” - comparison ““throwing pebbles into someone else’s garden.”

Lexical modification often appears as a consequence of the desire to return the lost internal form to a phraseological unit, to make its lexical meaning at least partly motivated. This is a manifestation of "folk etymology". This kind of error is widespread in the speech of preschoolers: ““fly upside down”,” ““even scratching a stake in the head,” etc.

This phenomenon also occurs in the speech of schoolchildren, and some of these errors are typical. Thus, “get into trouble” is often modified: “His mother taught him not to get into trouble”; ""The frost is cutting through your skin"": ""It's so cold that the frost is cutting through your skin." A typical transformation of the phraseological unit is “reluctantly”, which often turns into “grindingly with the heart”.

Violation of word order can be considered as a special type of lexical deformation. A fixed word order is not typical for everyone, but for some phraseological units, changing it in these cases represents a violation of the language norm: ““Molchalin will probably manage to get out of the water unscathed”” - comparison ““to get out of the water dry””.

Lexical deformation can be a consequence of combining two phraseological units that are close in meaning. Compare: ""to exhaust one's strength"" and ""to go out of one's way." In the sixth-grader’s essay we read: “I tried my best, but nothing worked out for me.”

3) Formation of non-normative phraseological units. A new phraseological unit in children's speech is always formed according to a specific model - the grammatical structure and partly the lexical composition of some normative phraseological unit are duplicated. The formation of a new phraseological unit is carried out, as a rule, by replacing one of the components of an existing phraseological unit with another word that is in associative connection with the one being replaced. Either this is a word of the same thematic group (days, hours, minutes), or antonyms (mind-stupidity), for example: ““I almost burst with fear”” - comparison ““ burst with laughter””; ""Sancho gained stupidity from Don Quixote"" - comparison ""got smart""; ""You haven't listened to this play? I was playing in front of your ears all the time!” – comparison ““before your eyes””.

4) Changing the lexical compatibility of phraseological units. There are certain restrictions on the compatibility of some phraseological units with other lexical units, and these restrictions are not logically determined, but are explained only by the established linguistic tradition. These restrictions in the speech of schoolchildren are often lifted, and phraseological units are used in combinations that, from the point of view of norms, are not permitted. Thus, the stable comparison ““like cut””, denoting a high degree of manifestation of quality, is used only in combination with the word ““shout””. Children can use it in other contexts: “I laughed like crazy,” “He wanted to drink like crazy.” The phraseological unit “to the bottom” had the meaning “entirely, completely”, but is combined with a limited range of verbs. (“test to the bottom” and some others). It’s hardly considered normative to “understand to the bottom”: “Valya and I are friends, we understand each other to the bottom.” The phraseological phrase ""let to the wind"" in the meaning of ""spend recklessly"" is combined only with objects denoting property, money, etc. Comparison in children's speech: ""We told her that such wonderful colors should not be thrown to the wind" ".

V. REFLECTION OF THE SPIRITUAL WORLD OF THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE

IN PHRASEOLOGISTS.

Knowledge of Russian phraseology allows us to better understand the history and character of our people. M. Sholokhov said very well about the folk character of phraseological units in the preface to the 2nd edition of V. I. Dahl’s book “Proverbs of the Russian People”: “The diversity of human relationships is immeasurable, which are imprinted in minted folk sayings and aphorisms. From the abyss of time, in these clots of reason and knowledge of life, human joy and suffering, laughter and tears, love and anger, faith and unbelief, truth and falsehood, honesty and deception, hard work and laziness, the beauty of truths and the ugliness of prejudices have come to us.”

Russian phraseological units accumulate the richest experience of history, labor skills, love for the Motherland and other moral qualities of the Russian people. They reflected the attitude of the people to human merits and shortcomings. Thus, the phraseological units sit still, sit back, count the stars, play the fool, bask in the rays of (what), beat the thumbs, count crows are combined into a common synonymous series with the meaning “to sit back, to spend time idly.” All of them in their meaning contain a semantic component of condemnation and neglect. Thus, for the Russian national consciousness, passivity and idleness are not so much an acceptable quality, as many cultural experts write about it. Such behavior is condemned, since it contradicts the ideal of fruitful, creative work, which is firmly rooted in Russian self-awareness. This is evidenced by a wide variety of units with the general meaning of purposeful, active, creative, fruitful activity: to contribute (to something), to get out on the real road, to keep abreast of (what), to bring to the end (to), to get a penny, to go to keep up with the times, get better, don’t put it off (what), don’t miss an opportunity (what), leave a mark (what), pull all your strength into a fist, kill two birds with one stone, put your soul (in what), make a contribution ( into what), to revive from the ashes (what), to put into circulation (what), to come to victory, to give birth again (what). This affirms the idea that results can only be achieved through persistent, creative work, intense struggle, dexterity, resourcefulness, determination, and practical skills.

The Russian people also sharply condemn such qualities as hypocrisy, pretense - pretending to be (someone), taking on a guise (whom), working for the public, dressing up in a toga (whom), putting on a good face when playing poorly, disrespecting oneself, shedding crocodile tears ; meanness - throw pebbles from around the corner (at someone), warm your hands (on something), add oil to the fire, make peace with your conscience, rake in the heat with someone else’s hands; irresponsibility - throw words to the wind, leave them to the mercy of fate (whom), put it on the shoulders of (whom, what), wash their hands; deceit - to mislead (whom), to rub glasses (to whom), to hang noodles (to whom), to avert eyes (to whom); boasting - beating one's chest, inflating one's worth; greed - trembling over every penny; cowardice - saving one's own skin.

The attention of many linguists is drawn to the fact that in the Russian language phraseological units with a negative evaluation significantly predominate over units with a positive connotation. Some scientists attribute this to the fact that phraseological units reflect the negative qualities of a Russian person. We beg to differ with this opinion. The mentioned feature of the phraseological composition of the Russian language indicates that the Russian people place very high demands on the moral qualities of a person, therefore an act that does not even in the slightest degree correspond to these requirements is sharply condemned and denied. Thus, the establishment of a standard of morality and beauty of the human personality in Russian self-awareness often occurs through denial. But among the phraseological units of the Russian language there are also units with a positive assessment. They provide an example of the moral ideal of the Russian people. He is a hardworking, truthful, sympathetic, kind, courageous, strong, proud person.

The central place among moral values ​​in the self-awareness of the Russian person is occupied by such qualities as self-sacrifice, courage, courage. Without this, there is no personality, no status for a person, no respect for him from others: take on himself (what), put on his shoulders (what), call fire on himself, do not spare his stomach, give his life (for what), substitute yourself under attack, sacrifice (what), go to death (for what), bear your cross, lay down your life (for what), lay down your head (for what).

So, as we have seen, the phraseological composition of the language plays a special role in the transmission of cultural and national identity, since the figurative content of its units embodies standards, ideals, and stereotypes that are characteristic of the Russian people. B. A. Larin wrote: “Phraseological units always indirectly reflect the views of the people, the social system, and the ideology of their era. They reflect - like the light of the morning is reflected in a drop of dew.” The problem of reflecting the spiritual world of Russian people in phraseological units is considered in more detail by us in the textbook “Russian people in the mirror of phraseology.”

Phraseologisms with the general meaning of “to experience emotions.”

In the Russian language, phraseosemantic fields with common typical meanings “negative emotions” and “positive emotions” are distinguished. Negative emotions include anger, irritation, indignation, despair, sadness, shame, anxiety, fear. Semantically, this generally homogeneous field still allows for the differentiation of specific meanings. First of all, there are differences between phraseological units expressing fear and phraseological units expressing horror. For example, the feeling of horror is expressed by phraseological units, the blood runs cold, the hair stands on end. They are more expressive, which is due to their figurative basis. Phraseologisms expressing fear are less expressive, cf. : tuck your tail, the nut is loose, the veins are shaking.

Phraseologisms with the typical meaning of “show mental abilities.”

In the Russian language, a fairly significant number of phraseological units are used with the general typical meaning of “to demonstrate a person’s mental abilities.” Phraseologisms in this field are divided into two parts - one consists of phraseological units with a plus sign, and the second - with a minus sign.

In the field with the “-” sign, the general meaning is differentiated, and sometimes specific phraseological units are quite far apart from each other. For example, phraseological units of stars from the sky are not enough, gunpowder cannot be invented mean that a person is devoid of talent or outstanding mental abilities, but there is no indication of stupidity. In the meaning of the phraseological unit not to see beyond the nose, there is an actual indication of the inability to foresee and there is also no direct indication of the stupidity of a person. Phraseologism to survive out of your mind can mean both physical and mental ill health, sometimes they can acquire a cognitive connotation of pity. Most of the remaining phraseological units in this field are roughly colloquial and have a clearly stylistically reduced character and are distinguished by a high degree of expression.

Phraseologisms with a general typical meaning

"to be influenced by the external environment."

In the Russian language, there is a rather significant phraseosemantic field with a general typical meaning, “external physical qualities and state of a person.” And in this field, the majority are phraseological units denoting negative qualities and states.

The most voluminous is the group of phraseological units with the meaning “to get tired.” Despite the fact that the general meaning of the field “to experience a feeling of fatigue” is specific, it finds further specification in individual microfields, the number of which is 11. For example, phraseological units knock off your feet, can’t hold your legs, barely drag your legs and others that include leg component means that the person is tired because he walked a lot. It should also be noted that phraseological units can’t hold their legs or can barely drag their legs often in various situations do not mean fatigue, but illness. Phraseologisms: eyes sticking together, nodding off mean that someone is so tired that they cannot resist sleep.

Phraseologisms denoting perception.

In the Russian language, there is a phraseosemantic field with a typical meaning of “human cognitive activity.” This field includes phraseological units denoting various cognitive processes, thinking, vision, hearing, attention, memory, speech, defining qualities and behavior of a person. First of all, a microfield is highlighted here with the meaning of “understanding something as a result of reflection”: to reach with your mind, to read between the lines, to get into the swing of things, to reach consciousness.

A whole series of phraseological units express the meaning of “suddenly appear in thoughts”: creep into the soul, enter the head, creep into the mind. Phraseologisms to sit like a nail in your head, to stuff your head with something mean “to constantly think about something.” The general meaning of “think about something” is expressed by the phraseological units scatter the mind, move the brain, go through the mind. Phraseologisms look at the root, see through, express the meaning of “draw the right conclusions as a result of reflection.” The meaning of “think about empty, unnecessary, unimportant things, remember irrelevant information, have a lot of unnecessary knowledge” expresses phraseological units, head is full, wandering in the dark, porridge in the head . The phraseological unit scratch one's head means “to understand one's mistake”; the phraseological unit mind goes beyond one's mind means “to get tired of tedious thoughts.”

Thus, the typical meaning of the phraseosemantic field “thinking” is divided into the meaning of a number of microsystems, i.e. microfields, the number of which reaches 4.

VI. CONCLUSION.

Despite the apparent originality of certain phraseological units, their formation in the language is based on certain patterns.

Features of the formation of phraseological units are associated with the type of material on the basis of which they are created. In the Russian language there are five such types: 1) individual words of the Russian language; 2) free phrases of Russian speech; 3) proverbs of the Russian language; 4) phraseological units of the Russian language; 5) foreign language phraseological units.

Phraseologisms arise from individual words quite often.

For example: a soul wide open, a man in a case, etc.

The largest number of phraseological units are formed on the basis of free phrases. Such phrases receive a new meaning transferred to them due to the similarity of phenomena or their connection. The head, for example, is compared to a pot, hence the pot cooks - “the head thinks.”

Many phraseological units arose on the basis of proverbs. Usually a phraseological unit becomes part of a proverb, used independently in speech. Without knowledge of such a proverb, the phraseological unit is incomprehensible. For example, an old sparrow (You can’t fool an old sparrow on chaff.)

A phraseological unit of the Russian language often becomes the basis for the formation of new phraseological units. This way is used in the formation of phraseological units based on terminological combinations: second wind, chain reaction, zero cycle, etc.

A special type of formation of new phraseological units on the basis of existing ones is when the composition and meaning of the phraseological unit changes. This is like a development of a phraseological unit, for example, with the word green - “free”: green light - “free passage” - green street - green war.

Borrowed phraseological units are formed on the basis of phraseological units of other languages.

Phraseologisms they call stable combinations of words, figures of speech such as: “knuckle down”, “hang your nose”, “give a headache”... A figure of speech, which is called a phraseological unit, is indivisible in meaning, that is, its meaning does not consist of the meanings of its constituent words. It only works as a single unit, a lexical unit.

Phraseologisms- these are popular expressions that do not have an author.

The meaning of phraseological units is to give an emotional coloring to an expression, to enhance its meaning.

When forming phraseological units, some components acquire the status of optional (optional): “Components of a phraseological unit that can be omitted in individual cases of its use are called optional components of a phraseological unit, and the phenomenon itself, as a feature of the form of a phraseological unit, is called the optionality of the components of a phraseological unit.

The first component of the turnover may be optional, optional, i.e. the expression will still sound without it.

Signs of phraseological units

    Phraseologisms usually do not tolerate the replacement of words and their rearrangements, for which they are also called stable phrases.

    Through thick and thin can't be pronounced no matter what happens to me or by all means, A protect like the pupil of the eye instead of cherish as the apple of your eye.

    There are of course exceptions: puzzle over or rack your brains, take by surprise And take someone by surprise, but such cases are rare.

    Many phraseological units can be easily replaced with one word:

    headlong- fast,

    close at hand- close.

    The most important feature of phraseological units is their figurative and figurative meaning.

    Often a direct expression turns into a figurative one, expanding the shades of its meaning.

    Bursting at the seams- from the tailor's speech acquired a broader meaning - to fall into decay.

    Confound- from the speech of railway workers it passed into general use in the meaning of causing confusion.

Examples of phraseological units and their meanings

beat the bucks- mess around
Overeat henbane- get mad (applies to people who do stupid things
After the rain on Thursday- never
Anika the Warrior- braggart, brave only in words, far from danger
Set a washroom (bath)- soap your neck, head - strongly scold
White crow- a person who stands out sharply from the environment due to certain qualities
Live as a Biryuk- be gloomy, not communicate with anyone
Throw down the gauntlet- challenge someone to an argument, a competition (although no one throws down gloves)
Wolf in sheep's clothing- evil people pretending to be kind, hiding under the guise of meekness
Head in the clouds- dream blissfully, fantasize about who knows what
My soul has sunk into my heels- a person who is afraid, afraid
Don't spare your belly- sacrifice life
Nick down- remember firmly
Making an elephant out of a molehill- turn a small fact into a whole event
On a silver platter- get what you want with honor, without much effort
At the ends of the earth- somewhere very far away
On the seventh sky- to be in complete delight, in a state of supreme bliss
Can't see anything- it’s so dark that you can’t see the path or path
Rush headlong- act recklessly, with desperate determination
Eat a peck of salt- get to know each other well
Good riddance- go away, we can do without you
Build castles in the air- dream about the impossible, indulge in fantasies. To think, to think about what cannot be realized in reality, to get carried away by illusory assumptions and hopes
Roll up your sleeves to work- work hard, with diligence.

Watch “PHRASEOLOGISTS IN PICTURES. Meanings of phraseological units"

Channel "RAZUMNIKI" on YouTube

Phraseologisms about school


Learning is light and ignorance is darkness.
Live and learn.
A scientist without work is like a cloud without rain.
Learn from a young age - you won’t die of hunger in old age.
What I learned was useful.
It's hard to learn, but it's easy to fight.
Teach intelligence.
Go through the school of life.
Get it into your head.
Hitting your head on the ice.
Teach a fool that the dead can be healed.

Phraseologisms from ancient Greek mythology

There are native Russian phraseological units, but there are also borrowed ones, including phraseological units that came into the Russian language from ancient Greek mythology.

Tantalum flour- unbearable torment from the consciousness of the proximity of the desired goal and the impossibility of achieving it. (An analogue of the Russian proverb: “The elbow is close, but you won’t bite”). Tantalus is a hero, the son of Zeus and Pluto, who reigned in the region of Mount Sipila in southern Phrygia (Asia Minor) and was famous for his wealth. According to Homer, for his crimes Tantalus was punished in the underworld with eternal torment: standing up to his neck in water, he cannot get drunk, since the water immediately recedes from his lips; from the trees surrounding it hang branches weighed down with fruits, which rise upward as soon as Tantalus reaches out to them.

Augean stables- a heavily clogged, polluted place, usually a room where everything is lying around in disarray. The phraseology comes from the name of the huge stables of the Elidian king Augeas, which had not been cleaned for many years. Cleaning them was only possible for the mighty Hercules, the son of Zeus. The hero cleared the Augean stables in one day, channeling the waters of two stormy rivers through them.

Sisyphus's work- useless, endless hard work, fruitless work. The expression comes from the ancient Greek legend about Sisyphus, a famous cunning man who was able to deceive even the gods and constantly came into conflict with them. It was he who managed to chain Thanatos, the god of death sent to him, and keep him imprisoned for several years, as a result of which people did not die. For his actions, Sisyphus was severely punished in Hades: he had to roll a heavy stone up a mountain, which, reaching the top, inevitably fell down, so that all the work had to be started again.

Sing the praises- to immoderately, enthusiastically praise, praise someone or something. It arose from the name of dithyrambs - songs of praise in honor of the god of wine and the vine, Dionysus, which were sung during processions dedicated to this deity.

Golden Rain- large sums of money. The expression originated from the ancient Greek myth of Zeus. Captivated by the beauty of Danae, the daughter of the Argive king Acrisius, Zeus penetrated her in the form of golden rain, and from this connection Perseus was subsequently born. Danaë, showered with gold coins, is depicted in the paintings of many artists: Titian, Correggio, Van Dyck, etc. Hence also the expressions “golden rain is pouring,” “golden rain will pour.” Titian. Danae.

Throw thunder and lightning- scold someone; speak angrily, irritably, reproaching, denouncing or threatening someone. It arose from ideas about Zeus - the supreme god of Olympus, who, according to myths, dealt with his enemies and people he disliked with the help of lightning, terrifying in its power, forged by Hephaestus.

Ariadne's thread, Ariadne's thread- something that helps you find a way out of a difficult situation. By the name of Ariadne, the daughter of the Cretan king Minos, who, according to ancient Greek myth, helped the Athenian king Theseus, after he killed the half-bull, half-man Minotaur, to escape safely from the underground labyrinth with the help of a ball of thread.

Achilles' heel- a weak side, a weak spot of something. In Greek mythology, Achilles (Achilles) is one of the strongest and bravest heroes; it is sung in Homer's Iliad. A post-Homeric myth, transmitted by the Roman writer Hyginus, reports that Achilles' mother, the sea goddess Thetis, in order to make her son's body invulnerable, dipped him in the sacred river Styx; while dipping, she held him by the heel, which was not touched by the water, so the heel remained Achilles’s only vulnerable spot, where he was mortally wounded by Paris’s arrow.

Gifts of the Danaans (Trojan Horse)- insidious gifts that bring with them death for those who receive them. Originated from Greek legends about the Trojan War. The Danaans, after a long and unsuccessful siege of Troy, resorted to cunning: they built a huge wooden horse, left it near the walls of Troy, and pretended to sail away from the shore of the Troas. Priest Laocoon, who knew about the Danaans’ cunning, saw this horse and exclaimed: “Whatever it is, I am afraid of the Danaans, even those who bring gifts!” But the Trojans, not listening to the warnings of Laocoon and the prophetess Cassandra, dragged the horse into the city. At night, the Danaans, hiding inside the horse, came out, killed the guards, opened the city gates, let in their comrades who had returned on ships, and thus took possession of Troy.

Between Scylla and Charybdis- to find yourself between two hostile forces, in a position where danger threatens from both sides. According to the legends of the ancient Greeks, two monsters lived on the coastal rocks on both sides of the Strait of Messina: Scylla and Charybdis, who devoured sailors. “Scylla, ... barking incessantly, With a piercing squeal, similar to the squeal of a young puppy, the surrounding area of ​​monsters resounds... Not a single sailor could pass by her unharmed With ease the ship: with all its toothed mouths open, She six people from the ship at once abducts... Closer you will see another rock... Terribly the whole sea under that rock is disturbed by Charybdis, absorbing three times a day and spewing out black moisture three times a day. Don’t you dare approach when he’s devouring: Poseidon himself will not save you from certain death then...”

Promethean fire sacred fire burning in the human soul, an unquenchable desire to achieve high goals in science, art, and social work. Prometheus in Greek mythology is one of the Titans; he stole fire from the sky and taught people how to use it, thereby undermining faith in the power of the gods. For this, the angry Zeus ordered Hephaestus (the god of fire and blacksmithing) to chain Prometheus to a rock; The eagle that flew in every day tormented the liver of the chained titan.

Apple of discord- subject, cause of dispute, enmity, was first used by the Roman historian Justin (2nd century AD). It is based on a Greek myth. The goddess of discord, Eris, rolled a golden apple with the inscription: “To the most beautiful” between the guests at the wedding feast. Among the guests were the goddesses Hera, Athena and Aphrodite, who argued about which of them should receive the apple. Their dispute was resolved by Paris, the son of the Trojan king Priam, by awarding the apple to Aphrodite. In gratitude, Aphrodite helped Paris kidnap Helen, the wife of the Spartan king Menelaus, which caused the Trojan War.

Sink into oblivion- to be forgotten, to disappear without a trace and forever. From the name Lethe - the river of oblivion in the underground kingdom of Hades, from which the souls of the dead drank water and forgot their entire past life.

Phraseologisms with the word “WATER”

Storm in a teacup- great anxiety over a trivial matter
Written on the water with a pitchfork– it is not yet known how it will be, the outcome is not clear, by analogy: “grandmother said in two”
Don't spill water– great friends, about strong friendship
Carry water in a sieve- waste time, do useless things Similar to: pounding water in a mortar
I put water in my mouth– is silent and does not want to answer
Carry water (on smb.)– burden him with hard work, taking advantage of his flexible nature
Bring to clean water- expose dark deeds, catch a lie
Come out dry from water- go unpunished, without bad consequences
Money is like water- meaning the ease with which they can be spent
Blow on water after getting burned on milk- be overly cautious, remembering past mistakes
Like looking into the water- as if he knew in advance, foresaw, accurately predicted events
How he sank into the water- disappeared, disappeared without a trace, disappeared without a trace
Down in the mouth- sad, sad
Like water through your fingers- one who easily escapes persecution
As two drops of water- very similar, indistinguishable
If you don’t know the ford, don’t go into the water– warning not to take hasty action
Like a fish in water– feel confident, very well oriented, have a good understanding of something,
Like water off a duck's back- a person doesn’t care about everything
Much water has flown under the bridge since that time- a lot of time has passed
Carrying water in a sieve- waste time
Seventh water on jelly- very distant relationship
Hide the ends in water- hide traces of the crime
Quieter than water, below the grass- behave modestly, inconspicuously
Pound water in a mortar- engage in useless work.

Phraseologisms with the word “NOS”

It is interesting that in phraseological units the word nose practically does not reveal its main meaning. The nose is an organ of smell, but in stable phrases the nose is associated primarily with the idea of ​​something small and short. Remember the fairy tale about Kolobok? When the Fox needed Kolobok to come within her reach and get closer, she asks him to sit on her nose. However, the word nose does not always refer to the organ of smell. It also has other meanings.

Mutter under your breath- grumble, grumpily, mumble indistinctly.
Lead by the nose- this phrase came to us from Central Asia. Visitors are often surprised how small children manage to cope with huge camels. The animal obediently follows the child leading him by the rope. The fact is that the rope is threaded through a ring located in the camel’s nose. Here you want it, you don’t want it, but you have to obey! Rings were also put into the noses of bulls to make their disposition more docile. If a person deceives someone or does not fulfill his promise, then he is also said to be “led by the nose.”
Turn up one's nose– to be unjustifiably proud of something, to boast.
Nick down- Notch on the nose means: remember firmly, once and for all. It seems to many that this was said not without cruelty: it is not very pleasant if you are offered to make a notch on your own face. Unnecessary fear. The word nose here does not mean the organ of smell at all, but just a memorial tablet, a tag for notes. In ancient times, illiterate people always carried such tablets with them and made all kinds of notes on them with notches and cuts. These tags were called noses.
Nodding off- fall asleep.
Curious Varvara's nose was torn off at the market– don’t interfere in something that’s not your own business.
On the nose- this is how they talk about something that is about to happen.
Can't see beyond your own nose- not to notice the surroundings.
Don't poke your nose into someone else's business- in this way they want to show that a person is too, inappropriately curious, interferes in what he should not.
Nose to nose- on the contrary, close.
Keep your nose to the wind- in the glorious times of the sailing fleet, movement on the sea completely depended on the direction of the wind and the weather. No wind, calm - and the sails drooped, more like a rag. A nasty wind blows into the bow of the ship - you have to think not about sailing, but about dropping all the anchors, that is, “standing at anchor” and removing all the sails so that the air flow does not throw the ship ashore. To go out to sea, a fair wind was required, which inflated the sails and directed the ship forward into the sea. The vocabulary of sailors associated with this received imagery and entered our literary language. Now “keeping your nose to the wind” - in a figurative sense, means adapting to any circumstances. "Drop anchor", "come to anchor", - stop in motion, settle somewhere; “Sit by the sea and wait for the weather”– inactive expectation of change; "Full Sail"- move towards the intended goal at full speed, as quickly as possible; wish "fair wind" to someone means wishing him good luck.
Hang your nose or Hang your nose- if suddenly a person is depressed or just sad, it happens about him that they say that he seems to be “hanging his nose,” and they can also add: “by a fifth.” Quinta, translated from Latin, means “fifth.” Musicians, or more precisely, violinists, call this the first string of a violin (the highest one). When playing, the violinist usually supports his instrument with his chin and his nose almost touches this string closest to him. The expression “hanging your nose on a fifth,” perfected among musicians, entered fiction.
Stay with your nose- without what I expected.
Right under your nose- close.
Show your nose– teasing someone by putting your thumb to your nose and waving your fingers.
With a gulkin nose- very little (a bun is a dove, a dove has a small beak).
Poking your nose into other people's business- take an interest in other people's affairs.
Leave with your nose- the roots of the expression “getting away with your nose” are lost in the distant past. In the old days, bribery was very common in Rus'. Neither in institutions nor in court was it possible to achieve a positive decision without an offering, a gift. Of course, these gifts, hidden by the petitioner somewhere under the floor, were not called the word “bribe.” They were politely called "bring" or "nose". If the manager, judge or clerk took the “nose”, then one could be sure that the case would be resolved favorably. In case of refusal (and this could happen if the gift seemed small to the official or the offering from the opposite party had already been accepted), the petitioner went home with his “nose”. In this case, there was no hope for success. Since then, the words “to go away with your nose” have come to mean “to suffer defeat, fail, lose, stumble, without achieving anything.
Wipe your nose- if you manage to surpass someone, they say that they wiped your nose.
bury your nose- immerse yourself completely in some activity.
Full, drunk and nose covered in tobacco- means a satisfied and satisfied person with everything.

Phraseologisms with the word “MOUTH, LIPS”

The word mouth is included in a number of phraseological units, the meanings of which are associated with the process of speaking. Food enters the human body through the mouth - a number of stable expressions one way or another indicate this function of the mouth. There are not many phraseological units with the word lip.

You can't put it in your mouth- they say if the food is not tasty.
Lip no fool- they say about a person who knows how to choose the best.
Shut someone's mouth- means not letting him speak.
Porridge in the mouth- the man speaks indistinctly.
There was no poppy dew in my mouth- this means that the person has not eaten for a long time and needs to be fed urgently.
Wet behind the ears- they say if they want to show that someone is still young and inexperienced.
Take water into your mouth- is to shut up yourself.
Pout lips- to be offended.
open your mouth- to freeze in amazement before something that captures the imagination.
My mouth is full of trouble- they say if there are so many things to do that you don’t have time to cope with them.
Wide open mouth- a sign of surprise.

Phraseologisms with the word “HAND”

Be at hand– be available, be in close proximity
Warm your hands- take advantage of the situation
Keep in hand- not to give free rein, to keep in strict obedience
As if taken off by hand- quickly disappeared, passed
Carry on your hands- provide special affection, attention, appreciate, pamper
Without stopping k – to work hard
Tuck under your arm- happen to be nearby
Fall under the hot hand- get into a bad mood
Hand doesn't rise– it is impossible to perform an action due to an internal prohibition
Hand in hand- holding hands, together, together
Hand washes hand– people connected by common interests protect each other
Hands don't reach- I just don’t have the energy or time to do anything
My hands are itching- about a great desire to do something
Just a stone's throw- very close, very close
Grab with both hands- agree with pleasure with some proposal
To rake in the heat with someone else's hands- benefit from the work of others
Skillful fingers- about someone who skillfully, skillfully does everything, copes with any work

Phraseologisms with the word “HEAD”

Wind in my head- an unreliable person.
Out of my head- forgot.
Head is spinning– too many things to do, responsibilities, information.
Give your head to be cut off- promise.
Out of the blue- suddenly.
Fool your head- to deceive, to divert from the essence of the matter.
Don't lose your head- be responsible for your actions.
Look from head to toe- everything, carefully, carefully.
Headlong- risky.
No pat on the head- they will scold you.
From a sick head to a healthy one- blame someone else.
Upside down- vice versa.
Puzzling over a task- think hard.
Headlong- very fast.

Phraseologisms with the word "EAR"

The word ear is included in phraseological units that are somehow related to hearing. Harsh words primarily affect the ears. In many established expressions, the word ears does not mean the organ of hearing, but only its outer part. I wonder if you can see your ears? Using a mirror in this case is not allowed!

Be careful- a person tensely awaits danger. Vostry is an old form of the word acute.
Prick up your ears- listen carefully. A dog's ears are pointed and the dog erects its ears when listening. This is where the phraseological unit arose.
You can't see your ears- they say about a person who will never get what he wants.
Immerse yourself in something up to your ears- they say to a person if he is completely absorbed in some activity. You can be deeply in debt – if there are a lot of debts.
Blushed to the ears- they say when a person is very embarrassed.
Hang your ears- this is what they say about a person who listens to someone too trustingly.
Listen with all your ears- means listening carefully.
Listen with half an ear or listen out of earshot- listen without special attention.
Ears wither- it’s extremely disgusting to listen to anything.
It hurts my ears- they say when something is unpleasant to listen to.

Phraseologisms with the word “TOOTH”

There are quite a large number of stable expressions with the word tooth in the Russian language. Among them there is a noticeable group of phraseological units in which teeth act as a kind of weapon of defense or attack, threat. The word tooth is also used in phraseological units denoting various deplorable human conditions.

To be in the teeth- to impose, to bother.
Armed to the teeth- they say about a person who is dangerous to attack, because he can give a worthy rebuff.
Speak your teeth- divert attention.
Tooth for tooth- abusive (tendency to abuse), unyielding, “as it comes around, it will respond.”
Tooth does not touch tooth- they say if someone is frozen from extreme cold or from trembling, excitement, fear.
Give me a tooth- to mock, to ridicule someone.
Eat with a tooth- drive, crowd.
Bare your teeth- mock.
Eat your teeth- gain experience.
Scratch your teeth- talk nonsense, nonsense.
Try it on your teeth- find out, try it directly.
Something is too tough for anyone- difficult to bite, beyond your strength, beyond your abilities.
Nothing to put on the tooth- they say when there is nothing to eat.
Not even a kick- absolutely nothing (not knowing, not understanding, etc.).
Look someone in the mouth- find out everything about a person.
Raise by a tooth- mock.
Show teeth- means demonstrating your evil nature, the desire to quarrel, to threaten someone.
Put your teeth on the shelf- go hungry when there is no food left in the house.
Speak through teeth- barely open your mouth, reluctantly.
Grit your teeth- without despondency, without despair, begin the fight.
To sharpen or have a grudge against someone- to be malicious, to strive to cause harm.

Phraseologisms with the word “CHEST, BACK”

The words chest and back are included in oppositely colored phraseological units. However, there are also positively colored phraseological units with the word back.

Stand up or stand with your chest for someone or something- rise to the defense, defend steadfastly.
Riding on someone's back- achieve your goals by using someone to your advantage.
Bend your back- work, or bow.
Hunch your back- work.
Ride on whose back- to use someone for some of your purposes.
Behind someone's back (to do something)- so that he doesn’t see, doesn’t know, secretly from anyone.
Put your hands behind your back- cross them from behind.
On your own back (to experience, to learn something)- from my own bitter experience, as a result of troubles, difficulties, adversities that I myself had to endure.
Knife in the back or stab in the back- treacherous, treacherous act, blow.
Turn your back- leave, leave to the mercy of fate, stop communicating with someone.
Pave the way with your chest- achieve a good position in life, achieves everything through hard work, overcomes all the difficulties that befall him.
Skulk- shift your duties or responsibilities to someone else.
Work without straightening your back- diligently, diligently, a lot and hard. They can be used to praise a roughly working person.
Straighten your back- gain self-confidence, be encouraged.
Show your back- leave, run away.
Stand behind someone's back- secretly, secretly lead someone.

Phraseologisms with the word “LANGUAGE”

Language is another word often found in phraseological units, since language is extremely important for a person, it is with it that the idea of ​​​​the ability to speak and communicate is associated. The idea of ​​speaking (or, conversely, silence) can be traced in one way or another in many phraseological units with the word language.

Run with your tongue out- very fast.
Keep your mouth shut- be silent, do not say too much; be careful in your statements.
Long tongue- they say if a person is a talker and likes to tell other people's secrets.
How a cow licked it with her tongue- about something that quickly and without a trace disappeared.
Find a common language- reach mutual understanding.
Step on your tongue- make them fall silent.
Hang your tongue on your shoulder- very tired.
Get on the tongue- become the subject of gossip.
Bite your tongue- shut up, refrain from speaking.
Untie your tongue- encourage someone to talk; give someone the opportunity to speak.
Loosen your tongue- without restraining yourself, losing control over yourself, blurting out, saying unnecessary things.
Tip on your tongue- an angry wish to an evil talker.
Pull the tongue- say something that is not entirely appropriate to the situation.
Shorten your tongue- to make someone silent, not to allow insolence to be said, unnecessary things.
Scratch your tongue (scratch your tongue)- talk in vain, engage in chatter, idle talk.
Itching tongues- gossip, slander.
The devil pulled his tongue- an unnecessary word escapes the tongue.
Tongue without bones- they say if a person is talkative.
Tongue is tied– you can’t say anything clearly.
Tongue stuck to larynx- suddenly fall silent, stop talking.
Tongue swallow- shut up, stop talking (about someone’s reluctance to talk).
The tongue hangs well- they say about a person who speaks freely and fluently.

Phraseologisms with the word “LITTLE”

Almost- about, almost
Small spool but precious– value is not determined by size
Small small less– one is smaller than the other (about children)
The bird is small, but the nail is sharp– insignificant in position, but inspires fear or admiration for its qualities
Little dog to old age puppy– a short person always seems younger than his age, does not make a solid impression
You never know– 1. anything, any 2. not significant, not important 3. excitement, what if...
Little by little– slowly, little by little
At low speed- slowly
From small to large– all ages
Small (drink)- a little, a small portion
Play small– make a small bet (in games)
From an early age– since childhood
Just a little- a small part of something.

Correct and appropriate use of phraseological units gives speech special expressiveness, accuracy and imagery.

PHRASEOLOGISTS IN PICTURES

See if the phraseological units are illustrated correctly, and tell me how you understand their meaning?

Guess a few poetic riddles about phraseological units:

You won’t find any friendlier relationship between these two guys in the world.
They usually say about them: water...

We walked literally along the town and...
And we were so tired on the road that we could barely...

Your comrade asks furtively
Copy the answers from your notebook.
No need! After all, this will help your friend...

They falsify, they confuse the words, they sing into the forest...
The guys won't listen to them:
This song makes my ears...

The time comes when schoolchildren begin to learn what phraseological units are. Their study has become an integral part of the school curriculum. Knowledge of what phraseological units are and how they are used will be useful not only in Russian language and literature lessons, but also in life. Figurative speech is a sign of at least a well-read person.

What is a phraseological unit?

Phraseologism - with a certain content of words, which in a given combination have a different meaning than when these words are used separately. That is, a phraseological unit can be called a stable expression.

Phraseological phrases in the Russian language are widely used. The linguist Vinogradov studied phraseological units, and it was largely thanks to him that they began to be widely used. Foreign languages ​​also have phraseological units, but they are called idioms. Linguists are still arguing whether there is a difference between a phraseological unit and an idiom, but have not yet found an exact answer.

The most popular are colloquial phraseological units. Examples of their use can be found below.

Signs of phraseological units

Phraseological units have several important features and characteristics:

  1. A phraseological unit is a ready-made linguistic unit. This means that a person who uses it in his speech or writing retrieves this expression from memory, and does not invent it on the fly.
  2. They have a permanent structure.
  3. You can always choose a synonymous word for a phraseological unit (sometimes an antonym).
  4. A phraseological unit is an expression that cannot consist of less than two words.
  5. Almost all phraseological units are expressive and encourage the interlocutor or reader to show vivid emotions.

Functions of phraseological units in Russian

Each phraseological unit has one main function - to give speech brightness, liveliness, expressiveness and, of course, to express the author’s attitude to something. In order to imagine how much brighter speech becomes when using phraseological units, imagine how a comedian or writer makes fun of someone using phraseological units. The speech becomes more interesting.

Phraseological styles

The classification of phraseological units by style is a very important feature of them. In total, there are 4 main styles of set expressions: interstyle, bookish, colloquial and colloquial. Each phraseological unit belongs to one of these groups, depending on its meaning.

Colloquial phraseological units are the largest group of expressions. Some believe that interstyle and colloquial phraseological units should be included in the same group with colloquial ones. Then only two groups of set expressions are distinguished: colloquial and bookish.

Differences between book and colloquial phraseological units

Each style of phraseological units is different from each other, and the most striking difference is demonstrated by book and colloquial phraseological units. Examples: not worth a penny And a fool is a fool. The first stable expression is bookish, because it can be used in any work of art, in a scientific journalistic article, in an official business conversation, etc. Whereas the expression " fool by fool" widely used in conversations, but not in books.

Book phraseological units

Book phraseological units are set expressions that are much more often used in writing than in conversations. They are not characterized by pronounced aggression and negativity. Book phraseological units are widely used in journalism, scientific articles, and fiction.

  1. During it- means something that happened a long time ago. The expression is Old Slavonic and is often used in literary works.
  2. Pull the gimp- the meaning of a long process. In the old days, a long metal thread was called a gimp; it was pulled out with metal wire tongs. They embroidered on velvet with gimp; it was a long and very painstaking job. So, pull the gimp- This is a long and extremely boring job.
  3. Play with fire- doing something extremely dangerous, “being on the cutting edge.”
  4. Stay with your nose- to be left without something that you really wanted.
  5. Kazan orphan- this is a phraseological unit about a person who pretends to be a beggar or a sick person, while having the goal of getting a benefit.
  6. You can't ride a goat- this is what they said a long time ago about girls whom jesters and buffoons could not cheer up on holidays.
  7. Bring to clean water- to expose someone for committing something unpleasant.

There are a lot of book phraseological units.

Interstyle phraseological units

Inter-style ones are sometimes called neutral colloquial, because they are neutral from both a stylistic and emotional point of view. Neutral colloquial and book phraseological units are confused, because inter-style ones are also not particularly emotionally charged. An important feature of interstyle phrases is that they do not express human emotions.

  1. Not a bit- means the complete absence of something.
  2. Play a role- somehow influence this or that event, become the cause of something.

There are not very many interstyle phraseological units in the Russian language, but they are used in speech more often than others.

Conversational phraseological units

The most popular expressions are colloquial phraseological units. Examples of their use can be very diverse, from expressing emotions to describing a person. Conversational phraseological units are perhaps the most expressive of all. There are so many of them that examples can be given endlessly. Colloquial phraseological units (examples) are listed below. Some of them may sound different, but at the same time have a similar meaning (that is, they are synonyms). And other expressions, on the contrary, contain the same word, but are clear antonyms.

Synonymous colloquial phraseological units, examples:

  1. Without exception, the meaning of generalization is: all as one; both old and young; from small to large.
  2. Very quickly: in an instant; I didn’t have time to look back; in a moment; I didn’t have time to blink an eye.
  3. Work hard and diligently: tirelessly; until the seventh sweat; rolling up your sleeves; in the sweat of his brow.
  4. Proximity value: two steps away; be nearby; at hand.
  5. Run fast: headlong; that there is strength; at full speed; what to eat; in all shoulder blades; with all my might; only his heels sparkle.
  6. Similarity value: all as one; everything is as if chosen; one to one; Well done to well done.

Antonymous colloquial phraseological units, examples:

  1. The cat cried(few) - Chickens don't peck(a lot of).
  2. Can't see anything(dark, hard to see) - At least collect needles(light, clearly visible).
  3. Lose your head(not thinking well) - Head on your shoulders(a reasonable person).
  4. Like a cat and a dog(warring people) - Don't spill the water, Siamese twins; soul to soul(close, very friendly or
  5. Two steps away(near) - Far away(far).
  6. Head in the clouds(brooding, daydreaming and unfocused person) - Keep your eyes open, keep your ears open(attentive person).
  7. scratch your tongue(talk, spread gossip) - Swallow tongue(be silent).
  8. Uma ward(clever man) - Without a king in your head, live in someone else's mind(stupid or reckless person).

Phraseologisms examples with explanation:

  1. American uncle- a person who very unexpectedly helps out of a financially difficult situation.
  2. Fight like a fish on ice- do unnecessary, useless actions that do not lead to any result.
  3. Beat your head- mess around.
  4. Throw down the gauntlet- enter into an argument with someone, challenge.

And, it is impossible not to use phraseological units or idioms (they are the same thing). We will tell you about them right now.

The meaning of the word Phraseologism

Phraseologism- this is a stable combination of words, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the words considered separately. That is, a phraseological unit is, in fact, a unique unit of language, and is perceived as an exclusively holistic concept.

That is why, when they try to translate phraseological units into other languages, they sound incomprehensible or completely meaningless.

Examples of phraseological units

The most striking example is the famous speech of the head of Russia, who promised Vice President Richard Nixon that he would show “Kuzka’s mother” to the whole West. They say that the English translators, upon hearing this expression, stumbled slightly, and then translated it as follows: “I will show you Kuzma’s mother.”

It is interesting that phraseological units do not obey the current norms of the language. They may have grammatical errors or some outdated features (archaisms). But this is precisely the cultural brilliance of idiomatic expressions.

Russian phraseological units

To kick the bucket is to sit back;

Without hesitation - without any doubt;

Play the fool - fool around;

Without a king in your head - without a mind;

- truly, fairly;

Down the sleeves - carelessly, sloppy;

Phraseologism- a combination of words that is relatively stable, expressive, has a holistic meaning and is reproduced in finished form.

Very often, the following names are used as synonyms for this term: saying, proverb, idiom, figurative expression.

Most phraseological units go back to some plot, historical or pseudo-historical fact. The development of figurative expression and generalization of the proper name included in it proceeds, as a rule, by “thickening” this plot.

Does every generalization of a proper name follow this path? Is there a specific historical or mythological prototype behind each name?

Names in phraseological units

One type of generalization of a name is its rhymed use in:

Sergei the Sparrow,

Gavrilo - pork snout,

Ivan the idiot,

Bear - fir cone,

Tatyana-sour cream, etc.

It is unlikely that anyone would think to look for the plots of these “stable comparisons”: it is clear that they are caused by random associations under the influence of rhyme.

With frequent repetition, such associations caused by rhyme can become a permanent characteristic of the name:

Alekha is not a catch;

Afonka is quiet;

Afonasy are beltless;

our Thomas drinks to the bottom;

Zina-zinya;

And Masha sometimes makes a mistake, etc.

For most Russians, the name Emelya is associated with the characteristic “chatterbox, talker.” It is due to a purely formal similarity with the verb to grind, which has become part of the joke:

Meli Emelya is your week.

Generalizing a name by treating it with rhyme is quite arbitrary. Much more natural is its social, public typification.

Although the name is individual, we can talk about typically Russian names (Ivan, Masha). This is already a step towards generalization, which leads to such common nouns as Russian Ivans, German Fritzes and Hanses, English Johns, Bills, etc. It would be entirely possible to write these names with a small letter, because they have already become synonymous with the words “ Russian", "German", "English".

Approximately the same social “stratification” of names occurs along the “rich/poor” axis. Some names previously evoked ideas of birth and nobility, others - of a “black bone”. The propertied classes of Russia were characterized by the desire to isolate themselves from the people not only by way of life, but also by name.

The social assessment of a name often develops into an assessment of a person’s qualities. For example, they have the meaning “stupid”: Vanka, Agathon, Aluferip, Ananya, Anokha, Arina, Varlakha, Erema, Maxim, Martyn, Mitka, Panteley (Pantyukha, Pentyukh), Pakhom, Stekha, Stesha, Shchura, Foma, Foka.

Popular expressions:

“To build an anokha” - “to play the fool”;

“Hopeless Arina” - “hopeless fool”;

“On the one hand Ulyana, on the other Foma” - “out of her mind”;

“Alekha is rural, Alyosha is unescorted” - “an extravagant, unbalanced, quirky, overly boastful person”;

“He walks like Martyn with a balalaika” - “he walks awkwardly and awkwardly”

This is a phraseological development of such negative characteristics.

The expression “filkin’s letter” means “an empty, worthless piece of paper”, “a document that has no force.”

Originally it was a letter written by an illiterate person, and therefore had no weight. In a word, a letter drawn up by a simpleton.

The word “simple” is ultimately derived from the Greek name Philip, transformed by the Russians into Filya, Filka, Filyukha. Bars often called their servants by this name. Remember Famusov’s appeal to his Filka?

You, Filka, you are a real blockhead,
Produced a lazy grouse as a doorman...

It is not surprising that the typified name of a servant joined the synonymous series with the meaning “stupid and lazy person.” This was facilitated by the use of the name Phil in Russian proverbs, where its owner acts as a simpleton and a loser:

They drank at Fili's and beat Filya.

There is an interesting meaning in the name Sidor. It goes back to the ancient Egyptian goddess of agriculture, Isis. The Greek Isidore, which we turned into Sidor, means “gift of Isis,” that is, an abundant, generous gift. But in Russian proverbs and sayings, Sidor is usually a rich, but stingy and petty person.

Knowing the social associations associated with the name Sidor, it is easy to understand the motivation for the expression “to fight like Sidor’s goat”: to the miserly owner, even a small injury seems like a big disaster. The mischievous nature of the goat constantly pulls it into the garden. The owner's persistent desire to wean her from this habit became a proverb.

Another interpretation of this expression is also known; it “reflected the desire for revenge on Sidor: if he himself is unattainable, then at least let his goat get it thoroughly.”

For Sidor's bad character, his goat takes the rap. Poor Makar, as a rule, has to be the scapegoat himself.

Russian proverbs give a detailed description of this unfortunate man. He is poor (“At Makar’s, just warm up” (i.e., snot) a couple; “It’s not Makar’s hand to eat rolls”) and homeless (“Makar is coming for vespers from the dogs to the tavern”), unnoble (“It’s not Makar’s hand to know the boyars "), obedient and respectful ("Bow to Makar, and Makar to seven sides"), and most importantly - irresponsible ("Poor Makar gets all the bumps").

Proverbs emphasize that he usually does hard peasant labor:

Before Makar dug vegetable gardens (ridges), and now Makar has become a governor.

It is not surprising that the name Makar has long been considered in Russian to be no more flattering than Anokha or Filka.

The negative attitude towards the name Makar, which developed in the Russian environment, was also reinforced by popular prints, where Makarka was depicted in funny market scenes along with the satirical market heroes Zakharka, Nazarka, Thomas and Erema, Pantyukha and Filat.

Thus, the image of the poor simpleton and incompetent Makar gradually took shape, which became part of one of the most mysterious Russian sayings - “where Makar never drove his calves.” It means “very far” and is often used as a threat of severe punishment.

Usually they try to explain this expression with some folk legend about the real Makar, who once herded real calves.

Here, for example, is the explanation of the Pomeranian storyteller T.I. Makhileva: “Makar was probably a good shepherd: he grazed everywhere, and no one grazed him further. So, even where Makar couldn’t drive the calves, they send someone.”

Observations on the common noun meaning of the name Makar indicate something else. Makar is a poor, landless peasant, forced to graze his calves on the most abandoned and desolate pastures.

Moreover, it is possible that Makarov’s calves are fiction, and this expression contains the same hidden humor as in the phraseological units “show where the crayfish spend the winter” or “I’ll do it when the crayfish whistles on the mountain.”

At first glance, this interpretation is contradicted by the negation of “not.” However, it must be taken into account that already in handwritten collections of the 18th century. this proverb is recorded without negation, for example: “I went to Makar to graze the calves.” Finding such a pasture is as difficult as finding a wintering habitat for crustaceans.

What is Kuzka's mother?

When we think about the origin of phraseological units with proper names, we inevitably want to associate these names with specific persons.

It is characteristic that the idea of ​​the real Kuzka’s mother is always tinged with humor. This is a character from funny folk ditties:

Oh, Kuzka’s mother is worse than a fever:
I was cooking cabbage soup and spilled it right on the heels.

Such ditties are sung on the White Sea. They also tell the story of the origin of the expression “show Kuzka’s mother.”

Kuzma had many children, he was poor. But even poorer was his mother, who could barely feed her children. As we see, a wide range of associations unfold around the image of Kuzka’s mother: “poisonousness,” poverty, sloppiness and awkwardness.

Approximately the same qualitative associations are characteristic of the name Kuzma in Russian proverbs.

Kuzma is angry and pugnacious:

Our Kuzma does everything out of spite;

Don't threaten, Kuzma, the inn doesn't tremble.

He is poor, and therefore he gets everything that is bad and worthless:

What is lame and what is blind, then to Kozma and Demyan (we are talking about poultry sacrificed on the day of Saints Kozma and Damian).

He is stupid:

This proverb is not for Kuzma Petrovich.

He is of the same “vile” origin as Makar:

Before, Kuzma dug vegetable gardens, but now Kuzma has become a governor.

In short, a bitter song for Gorky Kuzenka.

Being the son of a pugnacious and poor loser is not particularly pleasant. Unless extreme need forces one to recognize such a relationship: “Once you live, you’ll call Kuzma your father.”

Apparently, the expression “show Kuzma’s mother” summarizes such an unflattering idea of ​​​​the parents and relatives of the loser Kuzma.

Types of proper names included in phraseological units

In the Russian language there are two types of names included in phraseological units.

First type- names-facts, names clearly tied to a specific personality - mythological or historical (“Tantalum’s torment”, “Mama’s massacre”).

Second type- names are common denominators that concentrate certain human qualities and properties (“where Makar never drove his calves”, “Filka’s letter”).

In all these cases, the formation of phraseological units took place in the language, but was determined mainly by extra-linguistic factors: historical, ethnographic, folkloristic, etc.

Meanwhile, language, as we saw in the example of rhymed teasers, can itself suggest certain qualities and properties of a name.

We underestimate the purely sound associations of names, and they are often the reason for our attitude towards them.

For example, according to scientists, narrow closed vowels in the names Alexei, Elisha, Dmitry are associated with thinness and cunning, and the names Antony, Epiphanius, Theodosius, Evstigney give the impression of something longer, thinner, thinner than their East Slavic alterations Anton , Epifan and the like.

This property of sounds to influence the perception of a name is familiar to all of us. Indeed, why does the name Sergei have “gray” associations in its variants Serenya, Serenky? No development of the meaning of these variants can explain, just as one cannot explain its other “semi-speaking” forms: Gul - Sergul, Gunya - Sergun, Gus - Sergus, Gusha - Sergush.

It is also possible feedback of common nouns and proper nouns. Sound associations and false similarities sometimes transform obsolete words into proper names.

We often consider the “human” names of animals to be a random whim of the first hunter or owner who christened them so. However, behind Mishka-bear hides the ancient common name of a bear (Old Russian mechka - “bear”), behind Petya the Cockerel - the ancient “potya” or “potka” “bird” (we will find the same root in the words bird and partridge), behind the cat Mashka is the ancient Slavic name for a cat (Bulgarian “mache”, “machka”; Serbo-Croatian “machka”; Polish “maciek” and Czech masek “cat”, “cat”), and behind the pig Borey is the common noun “hog”. Such examples are not that uncommon.

Words that are close in sound but equal in meaning and origin can collide with each other, and then one of them must give way to the other.

This is exactly what happened with the words “mechka” and Mishka, “sweat” and Petya, “machka” and Mashka. As we see, the victory of these proper names over common nouns in the Russian language was not absolute: attributing them to the same animals still betrays their common noun essence.

Such processes, which have a purely linguistic basis, could not but be reflected in phraseology with proper names.

The expression push someone under the mikiki, “hit in the ribs”, “in the gut” is used both in the literal and figurative sense..

The form of the word “mikitki” is clearly nominal. Moreover, V.I. Dal also cites it as Nikitki “groin, ilium, hypochondrium.” It would seem that we should immediately begin searching for that Mikita or Nikita who was the first to put someone under Mikita’s skin. Moreover, the Greek name Nikita means “winner.”

However, scientists have proven that it has nothing to do with Mikita. Nikita, mikitka is just a Russian version of a Proto-Slavic word with the meaning “soft parts of the body.” In Russian it should have sounded like “myakita”, “myakitka”. But we will no longer find this form in any dialect; association with Nikita and Nikita displaced her.

An even more amazing metamorphosis occurred with the names Mitka and Minka. They are formed from different names: the first - from Dmitry, the second - from Mikhail. But they were brought together by phraseology.

The name Mitka means the same thing as the trace disappeared or was such, i.e. “disappeared forever.” But unlike the latter phrases, it is used only in relation to people.

It would be quite difficult to unravel the origin of this phrase if in popular speech there was no synonym with the name Minka. It has been known for a long time, as indicated by its use in the tale of Tumbleweed:

And so, my brothers, Tumbleweed Pea came out into the light of God, but the hero disappeared without a trace, his name was Minka.

Which name - Mitka or Minka - was the first to become a proverb with such a meaning?

The phraseological unit abyss as in Minkin fur “disappear without a trace” helps answer this question.

Don’t you think that both “They called Minka” and “the abyss like Minkin’s fur” are suspiciously similar to the well-known expressions “remember what the name was”, “there’s no trace of it”, “not a trace of it”, “no trace of it” etc.?

The meaning of the latter is exactly the same: “to disappear without a trace.” Formally, they are united by the root -min-. This is one of the oldest roots in Indo-European languages.

The Russian words remember, memory, imagine, opinion, doubt, which include it, have numerous relatives: Lithuanian mineti - “remember”, Latvian minct - “mention”, Old Indian manyate - “thinks, remembers”, Latin memini - “remember”. Everywhere, as we see, the importance of the mental process of memorization has been preserved.

“Disappear so that no one else will remember” - isn’t this meaning the common semantic core of all the expressions that we are considering? The primary basis of the phrase was Minka’s name, thus there are constructions like “no mention of it”, “remember as your name was”.

The verb “to call” in the last expression naturally evoked the idea of ​​some kind of name, name. This association quickly received a linguistic embodiment, fortunately the name Minka, similar in sound to imagine, remember, was at hand.

The transition from Minka to Mitka is a later matter. It is due, firstly, to a certain consonance of these names and, secondly, to the possibility of replacing the name in phraseological units.

So Dmitry and Mikhail became phraseological brothers.

The collision of a proper name and a common noun of different origins may not lead to such fruitful phraseological results. Often it remains just a throwaway pun created by the art of the writer.

Thus, phraseological units are an integral part of the Russian language. Getting to know Russian phraseology allows us to better understand the history and character of our people. Words and phrases often used in ordinary speech have very deep historical roots. The more we know about the meaning and history of phraseological units, the richer our knowledge about the culture and history of the Russian people will be.